A Royal America

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The Constitutional Convention

The Articles of Confederation had widely come to be regarded as a failure when the Constitutional Convention met in 1788. The one state which remained loyal to them was Rhode Island, which refused to even send delegates to Philadelphia. The union seemed to be coming apart at the seams.

Immediately, two plans saw fit to emerge. They were known as the Virginia plan, which included a powerful legislature, elected proportionally, and a less powerful executive; the New Jersey plan, was similar, but allowed for a multi-person executive, and for each state to have one vote in the legislature.

A third plan known as the South Carolina plan also came to be, a blend between the two¹. There would be a lower house, elected proportionally, and an upper house, which consisted of four members, ‘one per region’; it also allowed for a chief executive, elected by the legislature.

The Convention was deadlocked between the three possibilities. Meanwhile, as it proceeded, events were also going on in foreign lands…

The French Revolution occurred, and a government had finally been decided. A one-house legislature, elected by the people, known as the National Assembly, was created; also existing was a King, who had few powers. As their fellow revolutionaries accepted the idea of a monarchy, slowly the Convention in Philadelphia also began to turn towards the monarchy…

Alexander Hamilton brought forward the so-called ‘New York Plan’. It consisted of a system similar to the French one, with a one-house legislature elected proportionally, known as the House of Commons, with a King, elected by the House of Commons for life. However, all this meant was that by October, the Convention was deadlocked four ways.

The main break for the New York Plan came when Edmund Randolph, a delegate from Virginia and the creator of the Virginia Plan, endorsed the New York Plan as a good idea after all. Although the Convention was still deadlocked, it was clear at this point that the New York Plan had an edge over the New Jersey and South Carolina Plans.

By the end of October, as the Convention was planning to adjourn, Roger Sherman, a delegate from Connecticut, proposed the so-called ‘Connecticut Compromise’. The main problem the New Jersey supporters had with the New York Plan was the fact that it’s legislature was proportional, and so the small states would have little power. Sherman brought forward the idea of an ‘upper house’ for the New York Plan; a so-called Royal Council, which would have one member from each state, elected for life by the state’s delegation. Although the vast majority of legislative duties remained with the House of Commons, the Royal Council would advise the elected King, and enter states into the union.

Although some supporters of the New Jersey Plan remained, the Connecticut Compromise was good enough for most of its supporters, and by the end of October 1788, the plan had the support of over 50% of state delegations. The results were announced to the public.

Immediately, a Revolutionary leader, the former Governor of Virginia Patrick Henry, who had “smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending towards the monarchy,” came out against the Constitution. In order to increase its general popularity among the American public, Alexander Hamilton, James Monroe, and John Jay wrote the Federalist Papers, a document in support of the Constitution. The papers generally advocated the Constitution that had been agreed upon in Philadelphia was, all in all, the best plan for the country.

In corroboration with a Pennsylvanian known as Samuel Bryan, McHenry wrote the Republican Papers, which generated less publicity and were less effective than the Federalist ones. Nevertheless, the anti-Federalist papers popularized the idea of a Bill of Rights.

By October of 1789, all of the states which had been present at the Convention had ratified the new Constitution. Elections were scheduled.

¹This is OTL; such a plan was, in fact, created by Charles Pinckney; however, it was not seriously considered. This is the main POD; it is, so the Convention is deadlocked three ways, not two.

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The Election of 1789

Of the 13 colonies which had participated in the rebellion against Britain earlier in the decade, 12 had sent delegates to the Philadelphia Convention. These twelve were the only participants in the election of 1789, as Rhode Island instead chose to boycott the election.

Quickly, two parties emerged: the Federalists, who supported the form of government that the Constitution outlined, and were guided by the Federalist Papers; and the Republicans, who supported a weaker executive branch, and a weaker government in general. The writers of the Republican Papers, Patrick McHenry and Samuel Bryan, both declined to run for the House of Commons, and so the party found itself in the leadership of Thomas Jefferson.

The Federalist Party won the election.


 
Federalist (John Adams): 34
Republican (Thomas Jefferson): 25


The first business of the new Parliament was selecting the new King. Although 13 Republicans did not vote for a King, the lone candidate, Revolutionary War hero George Washington, easily cleared the 30-vote mark necessary for a majority.


Royal Election, 1791:
George Washington 46
Not Voting 13


King George I of America


Soon afterward, the business of electing a Prime Minister occurred. Every single M.P. voted. All 34 Federalists unanimously selected John Adams. Although most Republicans selected informal party leader Thomas Jefferson (R-Virginia), some ‘moderate Republicans’, understanding their vote would not truly impact the results, wrote in George Clinton (R-New York).

Prime Ministerial Election, 1791:
John Adams 34
Thomas Jefferson 17
George Clinton 8


1st Prime Minister of the United States, John Adams

With that, King George I and Prime Minister John Adams were inaugurated. The business of the 1st Parliament could begin.

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Before someone says 'needs maps'...can someone help me with maps? In the 1789 election, all Thirteen Colonies but Rhode Island participated...majority-Federalist delegations include all New England, NY, NJ, PA, and DE; majority-Republican delegations include MD, VA, GA, and the Carolinas.

Thank you for your help, and thank you for reading my timeline.

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All Ministers, including the Prime Minister, would be appointed by the King. At the time, however, the dominant strain of thought in England was that all the King's Ministers were equal, and thus that a Prime Minister would be a perversion of the Constitution.

They want a strong central government but no strong central character - therefore, there are two: the weaker King, who is very difficult to remove (once he's elected, he can only be removed for 'treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors'), and the stronger Prime Minister, on the other hand, can be replaced by the House of Commons at its' whim.

A map would be nice indeed.

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The 1st Parliament: 1789 – 1791

At the very immediate beginning of the 1st Parliament, a crisis occurred. The Constitution had merely stated that the House of Commons would be elected by districts, none of whom were to transcend state boundaries and all of whom were to have an approximately equal population. These guidelines had all been fulfilled in the 1789 election.

However, the Constitution had never mentioned exactly how often the elections were to take place, and this became one of the very first subjects debated in the House of Commons. The Republicans believed elections should be held often – Jefferson called for elections ‘every three years’ – while the Federalists seemed content to be similar to the British, as Alexander Hamilton (Federalist-New York) called for elections every seven years¹.

George Clinton (Republican-New York) proposed the so-called ‘Five-Year Compromise’, in which elections would be held every five years. This proposal received widespread support from the House of Commons. However, it was never even brought to a vote.

In a meeting between the Prime Minister, John Adams, and the Opposition Leader, Thomas Jefferson, the two parties, agreed to a compromise – the Republicans would support Adams’ seven-year proposal as the 1st Amendment to the United States Constitution (though the Amendment did stipulate that, upon agreement of the Prime Minister and the King, or in the absence of the Prime Minister², an election could be called earlier), while the Federalists would support Jefferson’s Eleven-Point³ Bill of Rights. The Twelve Amendments are brought in front of the House of Commons the next day. The vote is never unanimous, and not even one Amendment passes 50 – however, all garner the 40 votes necessary for approval.

First Amendment to the United States Constitution – The House of Commons shall hold elections every seven years, though in the absence of a Prime Minister, or with the consent of the Prime Minister and King, elections may also be scheduled.

Second Amendment to the United States Constitution – The House of Commons shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Third Amendment to the United States Constitution - A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution - No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution - The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution - No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution - In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.

Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution - In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution - Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution - The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution - No law varying the compensation for the services of the Members of Parliament, shall take effect, until an election of Parliament shall have intervened.

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One of the few Republicans to speak out against any of the Amendments to the Bill of Rights was Aaron Burr, the New York Attorney General, who famously criticized the Twelfth Amendment by noting that it meant that Parliament was an unpaid position until the next elections. In response, Parliament hastily passed a law paying itself ($6 per session⁴) before passing the Twelfth Amendment.

After this, Parliament established the Department of State (which would be responsible for the United States’ international relations), the Department of War (which would be responsible for the operation and maintenance of the U.S. Army), the Department of the Navy (which would be responsible for the operation and maintenance (and building) of the as-yet nonexistent U.S. Navy), and the Department of the Treasury (which would print and mint money and collect federal taxes).

Adams nominated John Jay (Federalist-New York) for Minister of State; Timothy Pickering (Federalist-Massachusetts) for Minister of War; and Alexander Hamilton (Federalist-New York) for Minister of the Treasury. However, his nominee for Minister of the Navy hit a slight snag.
Adams had nominated Benjamin Stoddert, a rich businessman who had bought the area near the Potomac (where the capital of the United States was being built) and then sold it to the federal government. However, a precedent had been established at this point that Members of Cabinet had to also be Members of Parliament, something Stoddert was not. However, Stoddert ran in (and won) a Maryland by-election, entered the House of Commons, and was roundly approved Minister of the Navy.


John Jay (Federalist-New York), Minister of State


Timothy Pickering (Federalist-Massachusetts), Minister of War


Alexander Hamilton (Federalist-New York), Minister of the Treasury


Benjamin Stoddert (Federalist-Maryland), Minister of the Navy

Adams then proceeded to pass the Judiciary Act of 1789. It established a Supreme Court (as required by the Constitution), with a Chief Justice and five Associate Justices (appointed by the King); it established circuit courts, which had jurisdiction over several states, appointed by the Prime Minister; it established the position Attorney General (who would be part of the Cabinet, and so appointed by the Prime Minister), who would argue cases for the Federal Government, and it established so-called district attorneys, who would argue cases for the federal government in front of circuit courts, and would be appointed by the Attorney General.

Adams appointed Edmund Randolph (Federalist-Virginia) to the position of Attorney General.
Washington nominated John Rutledge (the former Governor of South Carolina) to the position of Chief Justice; for his Associate Justices, he nominated William Cushing (a prominent Massachusetts judge who had been instrumental in that state’s ratification of the Constitution), Thomas Johnson (the former governor of Maryland), James Wilson (a prominent Pennsylvania attorney who had signed the Declaration of Independence, had been one of the key figures in Pennsylvania’s ratification of the Constitution, and had also written a Constitution for the state of Pennsylvania), John Blair (a prominent Virginia judge who had also served as Governor of that state), and James Iredell (Federalist-North Carolina, and one of the key figures in that state’s ratification of the Constitution).


Edmund Randolph (Federalist-Virginia), Attorney General


John Rutledge, Chief Justice


William Cushing, Associate Justice


Thomas Johnson, Associate Justice


James Wilson, Associate Justice


John Blair, Associate Justice


James Iredell, Associate Justice

After that, the House of Commons debated and passed the Census Act of 1790, which regulated how the Census should be carried out. The Census of 1790 soon occurred; it determined that approximately 4 million people lived in the United States, of which about 700,000 were slaves; it determined the five largest cities of the nascent country, in descending order, were New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore.

Soon afterward, Rhode Island asked for U.S. annexation. The Royal Council let it in as the 13th state with little debate.

In 1791, the House of Commons established the First Bank of the United States, which would oversee the financial activities of the United States government. The split here was not by party, but by region; the Bank was based off of similar state banks in New England, and was strongly supported by Northern merchants; in the South, the main industry was agriculture, which did not require a strong bank, and it was felt that the Bank would be an infringement on state’s rights.

Next up: the next several years!

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Thank you! This is exactly what I need. I'll edit it in.

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The 1st Parliament (cont.): 1791 - 1795

Upon his appointment Minister of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton set right to work. One of his first proposals was the so-called Tariff Act of 1791. Hamilton was anxious to create the tariff as a major source of government revenue, and the Act did just that, putting a tax (between 5-10 percent, depending on the value of the item – the Act was very specific) on importing an item into the United States, and a tax on exportation. Again, the Act (which favored Northern merchants) fell mostly on regional lines, as Southern Federalists opposed to the act were led by Thomas Pinckney (Fed-South Carolina), while Northern Republicans in support were led by George Clinton (Rep-New York). The Act passed by a surprisingly narrow margin, 32-27.

Hamilton also proposed the Whiskey Act, which levied an excise tax on whiskey. Although some Republicans opposed the measure, it passed fairly easily, 42-17.

In the period of 1791 – 1792, several changes occurred in the map of the United States. The Territory South of the River Ohio¹ seceded from North Carolina; the Republic of Vermont asked for annexation into the Union and was admitted as the 14th state by a vote of 11-2; and Kentucky broke off of Virginia, asking to become its own state; the Royal Council approved its request by a unanimous 13-0 and it became the Union’s 15th state.

In 1792, the Postal Service Act passed, establishing the U.S. Post Office and the position of Postmaster General, to which Adams nominated Samuel Osgood, who was not a Member of Parliament. Although Osgood was a resident of New York, he was nevertheless forced to run in a Massachusetts by-election, which he won, and was inaugurated as a Federalist Member from Massachusetts.


Samuel Osgood (Federalist-Massachusetts), Postmaster General

In order to regulate coinage (most cities had simply been minting their own coins), Alexander Hamilton introduced the Coinage Act of 1792, much of the text of which had been written by David Rittenhouse, Treasurer of Pennsylvania. It introduced the following coins:

•   Milles (1.1 pennyweights of copper)²
•   Half Cents (5.5 pennyweights of copper; 5 milles)
•   Cents (11 pennyweights of copper; 10 milles)
•   Half Dismes (20.8 grain of standard silver; 5 cents)³
•   Dismes (41.6 grain of standard silver; 10 cents)
•   Quarter Dollars (104 grain of standard silver; 25 cents)
•   Half Dollars (208 grain of standard silver; 50 cents)
•   Dollars (416 grain of standard silver; 10 dismes)
•   Quarter Eagles (67.5 grain of standard gold; 2 dollars, 50 cents)
•   Half Eagles (135 grain of standard gold; 5 dollars)
•   Eagles (270 grain of standard gold; 10 dollars)

The Militia Act of 1792, which was largely the result of the efforts of the King himself, provided states for the right to organize a militia, which could be called by the King, Prime Minister, or Minister of War in the event of rebellion.

1793 was a mostly quiet year, but it was also the year the Supreme Court heard the case Chisholm vs. Georgia, when Alexander Chisholm, the executor of the estate of Robert Farquhar, sued the state of Georgia over goods that Farquhar had supplied to the state during the Revolutionary War, the value of which had never been repaid. Chisholm argued his own case; the defendant, the state of Georgia, refused to appear due to being a ‘sovereign’ state. Chisholm was a British citizen. Thomas Johnson was not present at the case due to his poor health. Wilson, Cushing, and Blair issued opinions in favor of Chisholm; Rutledge and Iredell ruled in favor of Georgia, and so Chisholm won the suit, 3-2. In response, Republican Georgia Representative James Gunn introduced the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibited U.S. courts from hearing the suit of someone who was not a citizen of the United States, or from a citizen using the courts to sue someone who was not a citizen. The Amendment passed the House of Commons, and was quietly confirmed by state legislatures the next year.

Soon after, Johnson’s poor health forced him to step down from the Supreme Court. Ironically, Johnson would continue to live until the year 1818, when he died at the age of 85⁴. To replace him, King George would nominate William Paterson, the Governor of New Jersey and a strong Federalist. Although officially nonpartisan, King George was increasingly affiliated with the Federalists. When asked by Opposition Leader Thomas Jefferson about this, George replied that he would ‘support the people’s elected majority.’


William Paterson, Associate Justice

Of course, the decision in Chisholm vs. Georgia, and the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment begged a definition for the term ‘citizen’, something which had never been enshrined in law. Debate began on the Citizenship Act of 1794. It passed easily. It classified citizen as ‘anyone born in the United States as the child of a citizen’, and that a non-citizen seeking citizenship could get a ‘permit’ in the local court; should this person have remained ‘well disposed to good order’, he would become a naturalized citizen within 3 years⁵.

Meanwhile, the Whiskey Act which had been passed several years earlier was growing unpopular. In many western, frontier areas of the country, people had begun to refuse to pay. When a U.S. marshal arrived in the Monongahela Valley to collect the tax, he was attacked.

Under the leadership of one David Bradford, a local attorney, much of western Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia rose up against the government. In response, as per the Militia Act, the state of Pennsylvania raised the militia to attack rebel strongholds. Although King George himself wanted to command the troops, cooler voices prevailed and he stayed in the capital. Command was given to the lesser-known General John Neville.

Neville immediately attacked one of the centers of the rebellion, Bedford, Pennsylvania; easily defeating the poorly-organized rebels, Neville proceeded to do clean-up; the rebellion was over by New Year 1795.

When news of the rebellion reached the government in Columbia (the new capital⁶ was originally to be named Washington, but King George flatly refused), the Republicans immediately began pushing for a repeal; however, the Federalists, loathe to admit an error, opposed the plan. Repeal succeeded 33-27; however, by the time the news reached Monongahela, Neville had already won at Bedford.

It is difficult to gauge what effect the rebellion had on early electoral politics; after all, the Republicans were certainly the party more associated with the rebellion, yet the Federalists had been the ones to pass the Whiskey Act, a huge, unpopular failure.

Meanwhile, Indian forces and the U.S. were locked in a struggle over control of the Northwest Territory. American forces, under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne faced off in a final conflict against the Natives, under the command of Blue Jacket (or Weyapiersenwah). The battle was an overwhelming U.S. victory, which cemented American control of Northwest Territory, and ended hostilities in the region for over 15 years.

This spate of military activity reminded the U.S. that building up a navy was, in fact, very necessary. Stoddert had acted largely like a backbencher through most of the 1st Parliament (with the pay of a Member of Cabinet, of course). However, not wanting a backlash against him, Stoddert proposed the Naval Act of 1795 in early January of that year. The U.S. had not had a navy since it had sold the Alliance in 1785. The act commissioned the building of six frigates – the United States, the Constellation, the Constitution, the Prime Minister, the Congress, and the Chesapeake.

The act proved to be impressive foresight. In February of that year, the U.S. Minister to France, Gouverneur Morris (a Federalist), was killed by order of Maximilien Robespierre. Congress declared war on France (though as the nations were separated by thousands of miles), this meant little. As the country moved towards the Federalists in the aftermath of Morris’s death (the Republicans had always been friendly toward the now-enemy Revolutionary France), Adams sensed he could garner electoral clout from this event, and called for elections.

During the lame-duck period of the 1st Parliament, the U.S. and Britain (now allies against Revolutionary France), signed the so-called Jay Treaty, as it was mostly written by the American Minister of State, John Jay. The Treaty required the British to vacate their posts in American Northwest Territory, increased trade between the two nations, and set a boundary between the two nations⁷. Before signing, Jay asked Parliament to approve, which it did, 33-25 on party lines (as he was in London at the time, Jay could not vote). With that, Jay signed the treaty.

Next up: How did France possibly get to the point where they kill innocent foreign ambassadors? After that: the election of 1795!



¹OTL Tennessee.
²1 pennyweight = about 1½ grams.
³1 grain = 1/16 grams.
⁴Johnson’s resignation is as OTL – he lived even longer in real life. I shortened his life slightly, as his Supreme Court service is slightly longer ATL.
⁵OTL, naturalized citizens are allowed to become King, Prime Minister, or a Member of Cabinet (or, obviously, a Member of Parliament). Nevertheless, there is often suspicion against naturalized citizens, and they are rarely elected to Parliament (though it occurs every so often).
⁶Same site as OTL.
⁷The OTL one.

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Questions?  Comments?  Concerns?

Any feedback or comments (negative or positive) encourage me to do better and continue at this TL.

Also, I'm eager to answer any questions about what certain people are doing or how certain events occurred.

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The French Revolution

When King Louis XVI ascended to the French throne in 1774, the country was already in a financial crisis caused by its involvement (and loss) in the Seven Years’ War. Over the next ten or so years, France aided the Americans in their Revolution in North America, for little perceptible gain.

In 1789, the desperate King decided to convene the Estates-General, for the first time since 1614. There would be three Estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. Elections were held in the spring of 1789.

However, one of the main points of debate when the Estates gathered was how they should vote: should every delegate have one vote (in which case the Third Estate could narrowly outvote the other two combined, 610-591), or should every Estate have one vote (in which case the first two could outvote the Third Estate, 2-1)?

Simultaneously, all 610 members of the Third Estate took the so-called Tennis Court Oath, where they agreed to continue debate until France had a constitution.

After a long period of debate, on the 11th of July, 1789, in a 2-1 vote using the method it supported, the Estates-General announced that they would vote by estate, rather than by member. The outraged Third Estate split off from the Estates-General to form the National Assembly. The Assembly invited members of the other Estates to take part.

Around the same time, popular Finance Minister Jacques Necker asked the King to live according to a budget. He was fired.

When news of these two acts reached Paris, the city went into open rebellion. On the morning of the 14th of July, the rebels stormed the Bastille, a fortress, used as a jail and armory in Paris. All of the prisoners were released, and the weaponry and gunpowder were seized by the rebels. The governor, Bernard-René de Launay, – who, as the son of the previous governor, had actually been born in the Bastille – committed suicide.

Upon hearing of these actions, 151 members of the First Estate and 47 members of the Second Estate joined the National Assembly. Jean Sylvain Bailly was declared Mayor of Paris.

The Assembly then proceeded to form a Constitution. It provided for elections to the Assembly every three years; King Louis would get to maintain his title, but little executive power, which would be vested in the so-called President of the Assembly.

After the King had, reluctantly, signed the Constitution, the first parliamentary elections were held in mid-1791. Two political parties had been formed; the Feuillants, or moderates, and the Montagnards, the radicals. The Feuillants narrowly defeated the Montagnards in the election, 401-389. Antoine Barnave was selected President of the Assembly. However, the closely-divided Assembly was difficult to run, and Barnave called for elections in February of 1792.
On the outset, the Feuillants had the advantage. They were the incumbent – and still relatively popular – government.

One popular newspaper in Paris, the so-called Friend of the People, written by Jean-Paul Marat, was considered radical even by Montagnard standards. Its bloody imagery warned of counter-revolution. The newspaper’s last article warned of the following occurring should the Feuillants be reelected:

Five or six hundred heads would have guaranteed your freedom and happiness but a false humanity has restrained your arms and stopped your blows. If you don’t strike now, millions of your brothers will die, your enemies will triumph and your blood will flood the streets. They'll slit your throats without mercy and disembowel your wives. And their bloody hands will rip out your children’s entrails to erase your love of liberty forever.

Charlotte Corday visited him in March of 1792, claiming to have a list of enemies. Corday was invited into his home, where Marat was then bathing in herbal solution, something his doctors mandated he do virtually nonstop. There was no complicated plan: Corday simply drew an eight-inch knife concealed in her corset, and stabbed his chest, likely aiming for the heart. The knife pierced the ribs, perforated the right lung, and severed the aorta. Massive bleeding killed Marat in seconds.

The murder of Marat seemed to give credence to his warnings of counter-revolution. The Montagnards won an overwhelming victory against the Feuillants, 555-194. At Marat’s funeral, Jacques-Louis David – who was also the one who created the famous painting, The Death of Marat – compared Marat to Jesus. Like Jesus, Marat loved ardently the people, and only them. Like Jesus, Marat hated kings, nobles, priests, rogues, and like Jesus, he never stopped fighting against these plagues of the people.

With the victory of the Montagnards, Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre came to power. Robespierre immediately radicalized the government, as extremist ‘Marat Montagnards’, as they were called, held a majority in the chamber. King Louis was declared a traitor, and he and his family were jailed, and even given a last name, Capet.

The exact circumstances of Louis Capet’s escape from jail remain unknown to this day, but the most likely sequence of events was that one of the guards, a covert royalist, let Louis and his family go. Louis immediately fled the country to Austria. Robespierre declared war. Till 1795, the war remained largely a stalemate…till 1795.

Of course, there were also important political developments in France during these three years. Most Feuillants, such as Antoine Barnave, Alexandre de Lameth, and Adrian Duport, were executed. In fact, even Robespierre’s political allies, such as Georges Danton, were executed – Robespierre suspected Danton of wanting to overthrow him and take his position. Danton’s last words were to his executioner – “Don’t forget to show my head to the people. It’s well worth seeing.”

In 1795, the so-called Foreigners’ Night occurred, when Robespierre ordered the killing of nearly all of the foreigners in Paris, including the American ambassador, Governeur Morris, and the British ambassador, the Marquess Cornwallis. Nearly all of the nations of Europe declared war on the French Revolutionary Republic.

With France falling apart at the seams, Robespierre (and many of his associates) was killed by members of his own Montagnards, and replaced by Jean-François Rewbell.

Although elections were slated to be held in 1795, they never were, as France was in a ‘state of war’. Rewbell continued the war, and did largely significantly better than one would expect, largely due to the leadership of the Generals Lazare Hoche and Napoleon Bonaparte, who were becoming increasingly popular with the French public…

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The Election of 1795

The winner of the election of 1795 had never really been in doubt. The Whiskey Rebellion had hurt both parties equally – some noted that largely Republicans had participated, while others blamed the Federalists for inciting it. However, the main issue in the 1795 election was the killing, in Paris, of the American Minister to France, Gouverneur Morris. Morris had been a fairly prominent Federalist, and his election incurred sympathy with the government.

Following the Census of 1790, the size of the House of Commons had been increased to 99 seats. During the race, the Supreme Court seats of John Rutledge and John Blair went vacant. King George promised to appoint members of whichever party won the election to the seats, increasing the stakes.

The results were preordained.



Federalist (John Adams) 56
Republican (Thomas Jefferson) 43

The map was very similar to that of 1789. Of the three new states, Kentucky voted Republican, while Vermont and Rhode Island chose the Federalists. Of the states which had also participated in 1789, only three switched sides: Maryland and South Carolina from Republican to Federalist, and Pennsylvania from Federalist to Republican.

John Adams was sworn in for another term as Prime Minister. George Washington nominated Oliver Ellsworth for Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (Rutledge's seat) and Samuel Chase to Blair’s seat.


Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice


Samuel Chase, Associate Justice

Adams kept all of the Ministers in Cabinet, except his Postmaster General Samuel Osgood, who had, instead of running for reelection, ran for (and won) a seat in the New York State Assembly that year. Adams nominated the Mayor of Savannah, Georgia, Joseph Habersham, to the position. Habersham was elected in a special and took office as the 2nd Postmaster General of the United States.


Joseph Habersham (Federalist-Georgia), Postmaster General

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Comments, please?

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Can someone please make a map of the 1795 election? I could do it myself, but I don't know how to get something made on Paint onto the Atlas.

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The 2nd Parliament

The year 1796 was a largely empty one, as the War in Europe raged on, little of note happened in the United States. Treaties were signed with Spanish colonial authorities and natives on boundaries between the United States and these nations, negotiated by Thomas Pinckney (Federalist-South Carolina) and New Jersey district attorney Abraham Ogden.

In June of 1796, the Territory South of the River Ohio was admitted as the state of Tennessee.

In November of that year, Minister of State John Jay was elected Governor of New York, replacing Pierre van Cortlandt. This resulted in a Cabinet shake-up, as Attorney General Edmund Randolph was promoted to Jay’s position, and the Attorney General job was given to promising freshman John Marshall (Federalist-Virginia).


Minister of State Edmund Randolph (Federalist-Virginia)


Attorney General John Marshall (Federalist-Virginia)

The next year, 1797, was similarly quiet. Perhaps the biggest scandal that year was the Blount Affair, in which Republican William Blount of Tennessee was convicted of attempting to aid Indian tribes in aiding the British to conquer Spanish West Florida. Blount was expelled from Parliament, but was soon after immediately elected to the Tennessee Legislature.

The same year, Mississippi Territory seceded from Georgia.

In 1798, the Alien and Sedition debate occurred. Under debate were the Naturalization Act, which extended the period necessary to live peacefully as a citizen in the United States to 14 years, with no expiration date; the Alien Friends Act, which authorized the King to deport any alien considered hostile to the United States (to expire in 1800); the Alien Enemies Act, which authorized the King to deport any alien who was a citizen of a country at war with the United States; and the Sedition Act, which made it a crime to publish “false, scandalous, malicious writing” against the U.S. government.

The two Alien Acts were both easily passed – however, the government ran into a stumbling block when the Naturalization Act was debated, as Jefferson opposed them. Immigrants formed a key base of Jefferson’s Republican Party. Nevertheless, the Naturalization Act was passed.

The Sedition Act, meanwhile, was viewed by Jefferson as violating both the Second and Eleventh Amendments to the United States Constitution; however, Jefferson feared bringing the case to the Supreme Court, which was dominated by Federalists, as the Court ruling the Act constitutional would add to its legitimacy. Parliament was ripped apart over the battle over the Sedition Act throughout the end of 1798 – even the state Legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia weighed in, denouncing the Act, while the Massachusetts legislature called for its approval. The Prime Minister himself, John Adams, offered tepid approval for the Sedition Act. James Madison (Federalist-Virginia) led opposition to the Sedition Act from within the party, while supporting them was Minister of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. The two would become bitter enemies.

Ultimately, by a very narrow vote, Parliament voted 49-47 in favor of the Sedition Act, with 3 abstaining. The Act had failed to pass, as 50 votes were necessary for approval.

Then, in the early days of 1799, King George I died, age 66, at his Virginia home in Mount Vernon. His will, although leaving the decision of his successor to Parliament, recommended Minister of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. The royal election of 1799 had begun.

The Federalists were unable to choose between the incumbent Prime Minister, John Adams, and Hamilton – therefore, both announced a run. Although the Republicans chose to abstain, ambitious New York M.P. Aaron Burr announced a run anyway.

1st Ballot:
John Adams 28
Alexander Hamilton 28
Aaron Burr 23

The next several ballots all showed similar results. Occasionally, some M.P. would write in Jefferson (trying to convince him to run), or Governor Jay, or Thomas Pinckney (compromises acceptable to both Adams and Hamilton).

Although it did not seriously affect the royal election, an event would occur between the 6th and 7th ballots which would greatly change future American politics. Burr denounced Jefferson as a ‘radical’, trying to paint himself as an advocate for ‘democracy’. The Republican Party was split in two. Of its 43 M.P.s, 23 formed the Democratic Party, with Burr as its leader, and 20 formed the Radical Party, under Thomas Jefferson.

Eleven ballots passed before Hamilton and Adams agreed to negotiate. The first choice was obvious – highly respected former Minister of State, incumbent Governor of New York John Jay.

Jay, who was looking forward to a pleasurable retirement from politics after the end of his term as Governor, declined.

The next choice for Hamilton and Adams would likely have been South Carolina M.P. Thomas Pinckney, but Attorney General John Marshall presented himself as a compromise choice. Liked by both the Prime Minister and the Minister of the Treasury, the two agreed. On the next ballot, Hamilton and Adams would defer to Marshall, who would easily defeat Aaron Burr.

The next day, Marshall was inaugurated King John I.



King John I of America

Nevertheless, it was not lost on Adams’ enemies that the Prime Minister had lost the royal election. Anticipating his government’s fall in a no-confidence vote (with Democrats, Radicals, and Hamiltonians aligned against him), Adams asked King John for an election. The King agreed.

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The Election of 1799

The election of 1799 was the first ever election held in the United States with more than two parties. Three parties – the Federalists, the Democrats, and the Radicals – contested the election.

The 1799 race is perhaps more famous for the first ever true leadership contest ever held in America, as the Federalist caucus met in Columbia to decide if they would be led by Prime Minister John Adams or Minister of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Adams very narrowly defeated Hamilton, 29-26, with 1 abstaining.

The Democrats and Radicals did not hold similar contests, as it was universally recognized that they were led by Aaron Burr and Thomas Jefferson, respectively.

Had the old Republican Party held, it is likely Adams would have been defeated in the 1799 election – after 10 years in power, the voters were tiring of him and his government. However, the vote splitting which resulted from the breakup gave Federalists victories in several marginal districts, and Adams was elected to a third term.



Federalist (John Adams): 53
Democratic (Aaron Burr): 25
Radical (Thomas Jefferson): 21

Of the Federalist 1795 states, all voted Federalist again but Maryland and Vermont, which flipped to the Democrats. Of 1795 Republican states, Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted Democratic, while the remainder voted Radical.

Soon after the election, John Marshall made his first Supreme Court appointments, as James Wilson and James Iredell retired almost simultaneously. Marshall nominated Bushrod Washington, the little-known nephew of King George I, to Wilson’s Supreme Court seat, and also-little-known member of the North Carolina State Supreme Court, Alfred Moore to the seat of Iredell.


Associate Justice Bushrod Washington


Associate Justice Alfred Moore

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Can someone please, please create maps for the 1795 and 1799 elections? Please?

Comments would be appreciated, too, of course.

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The 3rd Parliament

Upon the narrow reelection of Prime Minister John Adams’ government to a third term in 1799, Adams decided to have his government undergo a Cabinet shakeup.

Perhaps most obviously, the position of Leader of the Opposition had been held by Thomas Jefferson for 10 years by the 1799 election. With his party slipping into third place, Aaron Burr (as the leader of the second-largest Cabinet party) led the Opposition.


Leader of the Opposition Aaron Burr (Democratic-New York)

The position of Minister of State was vacant, as incumbent Edmund Randolph had chosen to leave Parliament. In his later years, Randolph became a good friend, and political ally, of Aaron Burr, though he never reentered Parliament.

Randolph’s replacement was James Madison. Although some criticized Adams for nominating someone who had never served in Cabinet to the second highest office in the land, Madison was nevertheless a well-known figure: one of the authors of the final, compromise version of the Constitution, one of the authors of the Bill of Rights, and the man who had led opposition to the Sedition Act from within the Federalist Party.

At the time of his nomination, Madison was undergoing a feud with Alexander Hamilton, and some have argued that this feud was the reason Madison was nominated Minister in the first place. Although some staunch Hamiltonians voted against Madison’s confirmation, Madison’s friendship with Thomas Jefferson resulted in Jefferson’s convincing several Radicals to back Madison. In the end, Madison was confirmed.


Minister of State James Madison (Federalist-Virginia)

Adams’ Attorney General, John Marshall, had been elected King. Adams nominated Charles Lee, an M.P. from Virginia elected in the 1795 election that was widely considered one of the nation’s best attorneys. There was little opposition to Lee’s nomination from any part of Parliament.


Attorney General Charles Lee (Federalist-Virginia)

The incumbent Minister of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton, a man who Adams now rather disliked. However, Adams could not afford to upset the Hamiltonians too badly, as his majority depended on them. Adams, who had been ready to clench his teeth and re-nominate Hamilton, was suddenly faced with a pleasant surprise, as Hamilton tendered his resignation. Adams nominated Oliver Wolcott, Jr. – M.P. from Connecticut since 1795, and one of Adams’ key economic advisors for longer – Minister of the Treasury. Wolcott was confirmed without much difficulty.


Minister of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (Federalist-Connecticut)

Adams’ Minister of War, Timothy Pickering, was a Hamiltonian – however, Adams decided to keep Pickering, who was re-nominated and confirmed easily. The Minister of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, who was not a Hamiltonian, faced an even smoother ride.

Adams also re-nominated his Postmaster General, Joseph Habersham, whose re-nomination faced little difficulty.

The Third Adams Government –
Prime Minister: The Rt. Hon.¹ John Adams (Federalist-Massachusetts)
Minister of State: James Madison (Federalist-Virginia)
Attorney General: Charles Lee (Federalist-Virginia)
Minister of the Treasury: Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (Federalist-Connecticut)
Minister of War: Timothy Pickering (Federalist-Massachusetts)
Minister of the Navy: Benjamin Stoddert (Federalist-Maryland)
Postmaster General: Joseph Habersham (Federalist-Georgia)

The 3rd Parliament was, like the second, a seemingly quiet, almost do-nothing Parliament, but one which hid the tensions between the parliamentary groups. The informed observer might have likened this period to a mine before its explosion – calm, you may not even notice it – but about to go off.

In the early 1800s, the Library of Parliament was established. The Library of Parliament, intended for the use of, well, Parliament, quickly became one of, and eventually the, largest libraries in the United States.

Some debating occurred during the 3rd Parliament about the status of the capital city of Columbia. The District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801, which made the city independent from any state, without any representation in Parliament, was viewed a suitable solution to the problem. The act ensured that the state of Maryland would not house the nation’s capital (this was viewed as giving it a ‘leg up’ against other states). To a modern reader, the act of not giving Columbia any Parliamentary representation may seem odd, but at the time it was viewed like giving Parliament its own vote in Parliament.

In 1801, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Oliver Ellsworth, aging rapidly, decided to retire from the Court. As expected, King John nominated Attorney General Charles Lee to the Supreme Court. Parliament confirmed Lee with little debate.


Chief Justice Charles Lee

The vacancy in the position of Attorney General resulted in another Cabinet reshuffle, as Adams promoted Postmaster General Joseph Habersham to the position of Attorney General; demoted Minister of War Timothy Pickering to the position of Postmaster General; and appointed Samuel Dexter, a Federalist M.P. from Massachusetts, Minister of War. Dexter had been elected in a 1793 by-election.


Attorney General Joseph Habersham (Federalist-Georgia)


Postmaster General Timothy Pickering (Federalist-Massachusetts)


Minister of War Samuel Dexter (Federalist-Massachusetts)

Meanwhile, some areas of the western frontier were reaching statehood – in particular the very western portion of Indiana Territory, which styled itself ‘Ohio’. The Enabling Act of 1802 created a procedure for turning U.S. territories into U.S. states; summarized, it said that the U.S. government would create a territorial government, which must then be propped up by voters; only an elected territorial government could petition for statehood (which, as outlined by the Constitution, must then be accepted by Parliament). Soon afterward, the Indiana territorial legislature petitioned for a large section of itself to be admitted as the U.S. state of Ohio. Ohio was admitted to the Union in late 1802.

Then, in 1803, the mine known as the 3rd Parliament exploded.


¹In the late twentieth century, it became standard to add the title ‘Rt. Hon.’ to those nominated for King. This also applied retroactively.   

[Vosem]

The next update may not come for a while, as it involves TTL's version of Marbury v. Madison, TTL's version of the election of 1800, and TTL's version of the Twelfth Amendment all bound up in one huge constitutional crisis. May take a while to write, if you get my drift.

[Vosem]

So now what are the major differences between the Radical and Republican Parties now? Are the Radicals much more of an political personality cult for Jefferson or do also have more extreme policy views? Did my question on the classification of relatives of the King being considered Noblity(Like Sons called Prince) or is just a title?

The Radicals are basically an extension of the old Republicans, just with a different name. The Democrats are under the strict rule of Aaron Burr.

There is no American nobility. The wife of the King is known as the Queen Consort (and in the unlikely event a Queen would be elected, her husband would be a King Consort).

Sorry about not having the maps.

Sorry, Vosem, I'll get you the maps soon.

Please, Sir, can I have some maps?

[Vosem]

So as to provoke some maps, I'm going to summarize the TL up to this point.

Kings:

1. George I Washington (de jure Independent, de facto Federalist, 1789 - 1799)
2. John I Marshall (Federalist, 1799 - current)

Prime Ministers:

1. John Adams (Federalist, 1789 - current)

Ministers of State:

1. John Jay (Federalist, 1789 - 1796)
2. Edmund Randolph (Federalist, 1796 - 1799)
3. James Madison (Federalist, 1799 - current)

Attorneys General:

1. Edmund Randolph (Federalist, 1789 - 1796)
2. John Marshall (Federalist, 1796 - 1799)
3. Charles Lee (Federalist, 1799 - 1801)
4. Joseph Habersham (Federalist, 1801 - current)

Ministers of the Treasury:

1. Alexander Hamilton (Federalist, 1789 - 1799)
2. Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (Federalist, 1799 - current)

Ministers of War:

1. Timothy Pickering (Federalist, 1789 - 1801)
2. Samuel Dexter (Federalist, 1801 - current)

Ministers of the Navy:

1. Benjamin Stoddert (Federalist, 1789 - current)

Postmasters General:

1. Samuel Osgood (Federalist, 1792 - 1795)
2. Joseph Habersham (Federalist, 1795 - 1801)
3. Timothy Pickering (Federalist, 1801 - current)

I won't post the next update till I get my maps. Please, NiK/Xahar.

[Vosem]

I would like to thank NiK for providing the maps (though Tennessee should be on the 1799 one).

Update coming forthwith.

[Vosem]

The Causes and Aftermath of the Election of 1803

After his leaving Cabinet in 1799, the Right Honorable Alexander Hamilton returned to the backbenches. Nevertheless, Hamilton had used four years wisely, spending them accumulating support against the aging Prime Minister. In 1803, Hamilton was confident enough of victory to declare a leadership challenge. All Federalist Members of Parliament, Royal Councilmen, Governors, and other notables gathered at Hartford, where the 52 Federalist M.P.s (one had been unable to attend) would vote on the party leadership.

A local newspaper, the Hartford Courant, then came up with something which, in modern times, permeates the political world, but which didn’t gain popularity until the mid-20th century, and was practically unheard of during most of the 19th: a public poll. The Courant asked every single Federalist M.P. who they were planning to support. The Courant’s results seemed to spell doom for the Prime Minister, as they showed Hamilton leading him by an overwhelming margin of 34-18. Adams needed a miracle. He got one.

The King was an avowed Federalist, and soon arrived at the Convention. Just before voting was about to begin – Adams had by now practically given up – the King endorsed Adams for the position. The King (thought to be a neutral in the Adams-Hamilton conflict) had picked his side. Adams saw a literally last-minute surge in support. Finally, every M.P. had cast their vote, and the results were counted. Adams and Hamilton had tied, 26-26.

Quickly, the Convention descended into all-out chaos as the Hamiltonians (who were given the name Nationalists, after the Baltimore Nationalist, a prominent Hamiltonian newspaper) and the Adamsites (who became ‘Royalists’, as they had Royal support) both declared their candidate the winner. Shouting soon began, and one pair of M.P.s even began a brawl right on the floor. Nevertheless, the major players – Adams, Hamilton, the King – maintained quiet integrity.

Later that day, Adams, the King, Hamilton, and Hamilton’s son Phillip (his protégé) met in the home of former Supreme Court Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth, a legitimate neutral. However, while the two were calm, both men accused each other of incompetence, of election rigging, of infidelity, and of a dozen other things. The next day, the Federalist Party formally split into two blocs – the Royalists, under Prime Minister Rt. Hon. John Adams, and the Nationalists, under former Minister of the Treasury Rt. Hon. Alexander Hamilton. With a no-confidence vote Adams was sure to lose approaching, Adams asked the King to call an election. The King agreed, and did so.

From the start, it seemed unlikely that the election would produce a majority – or anything like it – for any major party. From the view of the major parties, they waited to see who would win which amount of the 128 seats (the total had been increased after the Census of 1800) before beginning the negotiations which would hopefully lead to a government. Finally, the votes were counted.

Nationalist (Alexander Hamilton) 41
Democratic (Aaron Burr) 36
Royalist (John Adams) 30
Radical (Thomas Jefferson) 21

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As expected, no party had a majority. However, alarmingly for the other three, with all members of the Royal Council having stated their party status, the Nationalists had a small, 1-vote advantage.

Back in the House of Commons, negotiations began to form a government. The first group to form an alliance may also have been among the least likely pairings, as the Royalists and Radicals formed an alliance, with George Clinton as their candidate for Prime Minister. It is believed that James Madison was their first choice, but, holding out an unlikely hope that the Nationalists would, perhaps, join the Coalition, George Clinton was confirmed as the Coalition’s candidate for Prime Minister (while Adams and Jefferson remained Leaders of its separate parts).

Coalition (George Clinton) 51
Nationalist (Alexander Hamilton) 41
Democratic (Aaron Burr) 36

An uneasy stalemate ensued, with both the Coalition and the Nationalists attempting to convince Aaron Burr to join them. Finally, Burr offered a deal to the Coalition: I’ll be Prime Minister, all members of Cabinet will be Radicals and Royalists.

In retrospect, nobody can be quite sure what Philip Hamilton was thinking during his response to Burr. It must have been quite obvious that the Coalition (especially with a man like Jefferson, who detested Burr, as one of its leaders) would refuse Burr’s offer. But something gave the young Hamilton the impression that it would accept. Hamilton stood up and gave a long rant in reply, largely concerning what a dishonest villain Burr was, and how the people had elected his father’s party the most seats because they wanted him to be Prime Minister, and how Burr was undermining democracy. Finally, Hamilton challenged Burr to a duel. Throughout the speech, Burr remained on the podium, while Hamilton was simply standing up next to his seat.

The House waited for Burr’s scathing reply. However, Burr calmly, quietly accepted the offer to duel, left the podium, and returned to his seat.

The next day, after some deliberation, the Coalition refused Burr’s offer. Finally, after two more weeks of stalemate, the Coalition offered Burr a deal: he would get one Cabinet position other than Prime Minister, of his choosing, and the remainder of the seats in Cabinet would be filled by Royalists and Radicals. Burr would support the government throughout the entire seven-year term.

Burr agreed, chose the position of Minister of State, and ordered his party to vote Clinton for Prime Minister on the next ballot.

Coalition (George Clinton) 87
Nationalist (Alexander Hamilton) 41

Meanwhile, the Royal Council was majority Nationalist, and the Constitution claimed that the Royal Council (like the King) could veto the actions of the House of Commons. In a party-line vote, the Royal Council vetoed the appointment of George Clinton Prime Minister.

Excerpt from the Constitution of the United States:
‘the Prime Minister and others of the King’s Ministers shall be selected by the House of Commons’

Excerpt from the Constitution of the United States:
‘the Royal Council will have the Power to veto any Act of the House of Commons’

James Madison brought the case before the Supreme Court, claiming that according to the above passage from the Constitution, the House of Commons, and only the House of Commons, had the right to select Ministers. The Nationalists were represented by the owner of the Baltimore Nationalist, a little-known but talented attorney named William Marbury.

Marbury v. Madison constitutes a major leap in the power of the Supreme Court, as, for the first time in its history, it declared something unconstitutional, claiming that the responsibility for selecting Ministers lay with the House of Commons, and that the Constitution barred the Royal Council from interfering. Lee, Washington, and Moore (Marshall’s nominees) ruled in favor of Madison, while Cushing, Paterson, and Chase (Washington’s nominees), ruled in favor of Marbury. As Chief Justice, Lee held the tiebreaking vote, and Madison won.

The next day, the House of Commons selected its Ministers. George Clinton (Radical-New York) was inaugurated Prime Minister; sticking to his deal with the Democrats, Aaron Burr (Democratic-New York) became Minister of State; current Minister of State James Madison was demoted to Minister of War (Royalist-Virginia); Radical party leader Thomas Jefferson became Attorney General (Radical-Virginia); M.P. Albert Gallatin (Royalist-Pennsylvania) to Minister of the Treasury; Charles Pinckney (Royalist-South Carolina) was nominated Postmaster General on the advice of his more popular, better-known younger brother Thomas; and William Jones (Radical-Pennsylvania), who had been a veteran of the American Revolutionary War at sea for Minister of the Navy.


Prime Minister of the United States George Clinton (Radical-New York)


Minister of State Aaron Burr (Democratic-New York)


Minister of War James Madison (Royalist-Virginia)


Attorney General Thomas Jefferson (Radical-Virginia)


Minister of the Treasury Albert Gallatin (Royalist-Pennsylvania)


Postmaster General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (Royalist-South Carolina


Minister of the Navy William Jones (Radical-Pennsylvania)

Obviously, Alexander Hamilton became Leader of the Opposition.


Leader of the Opposition Alexander Hamilton (Nationalist-New York)

There were three final ramifications of the election which had not yet occurred…

After the government was sworn in, James Monroe (who had not, in spite of his high visibility, received a Cabinet position) introduced the Fourteenth Amendment, which, by its own phrasing, would ‘abolish the Royal Council and transfer all its powers to the House of Commons.’ This idea was derided by Nationalists (and some Royalists) as petty tyranny; however, its support among the people slowly increased, and finally, the Coalition supported the Amendment unanimously, 87-41. It was given to the state legislatures, where it quickly achieved enough support to pass. The Royal Council had been abolished.

John Adams, seeing that Hamilton had not become Prime Minister, resigned looking forward to a pleasurable retirement. The Royalist party underwent the first ever real open leadership contest, but most potential candidates excused themselves – the younger Adams was advised by the elder to run later; John Jay claimed that if he hadn’t accepted the Kingship, he wasn’t accepting this; John Eagar Howard, whose run no one had been anticipating in the slightest, declined. Finally, the pieces seemed set for an epic contest between Minister of War James Madison and prominent, popular South Carolinian Thomas Pinckney; however, Pinckney unexpectedly decided not to run in favor of his elder brother, Postmaster General Charles “C.C.” Pinckney. Madison defeated the elder Pinckney without much trouble.

Finally, in the last ramification, in mid-autumn 1803, Aaron Burr and Philip Hamilton met at the Heights of Weehawken to duel. Hamilton was younger, and quicker, and fired first; however, Hamilton just missed Burr. Burr was older, and perhaps not a very good shot, but his aim that morning was true, and he hit Hamilton in the chest. Hamilton was taken to the home of a local doctor, David Hosack, who attempted to treat Hamilton. Hamilton had reportedly told Hosack that he was mortally wounded; based on other accounts of Hamilton, it is possible he had been manic-delusional even before the duel. It is not known what methods Hosack used to treat Hamilton; it is possible that these methods may have been Hamilton’s true killers. In any case, Hamilton died in Weehawken, New Jersey, a little more than a day later.

With that, the election of 1803 had come to an end.

[Vosem]

State-by-state Results of the Election of 1803:

Connecticut – Nationalist
Delaware – Royalist
Georgia – Radical
Kentucky – Radical
Maryland – Democratic
Massachusetts – Nationalist
New Hampshire – Nationalist
New Jersey – Royalist
New York – Nationalist
North Carolina – Radical
Ohio – Democratic
Pennsylvania – Democratic
Rhode Island – Nationalist
South Carolina – Democratic
Tennessee – Radical
Vermont – Royalist
Virginia – Radical

[Vosem]

Could someone make a map for the 1803 election? And fix the 1799 one (which is good, but Tennessee is its own state).