The American Monarchy

[Lief 🗽]

This is (I hope) an interesting What-If, about a United States where, instead of an executive branch, we have a King. Comments, suggestions, etc. are welcome, especially clearing up of historical inaccuracies. The point of departure is the first event, and while it is admittedly a bit of a stretch, the point of departure leads to the eventual adoption of a constitution establishing a monarchy.

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May 1787- Roger Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth, travelling together to Philadelphia to represent the state of Connecticut, die of a fever on the way to Pennsylvania. They are 66 and 42 years old, respectively. ¹

September 1787- After a summer of meetings, the Philadelphia Convention is deadlocked. Both Virginia and New Jersey present separate plans for the United States, but a consensus cannot be reached. In a passionate speech, Hamilton proposes his plan for a new constitution, changed slightly from the plan he proposed in June: a hereditary monarchy, a bicameral legislature modeled on that of Great Britain, and a judiciary, appointed by the monarch, with life-long terms. While his earlier speech hadn’t been taken seriously by the delegates, his second speech managed to garner support from a sizable group of onlookers. Ultimately, however, this did nothing more but split the convention three ways between the Virginia, New Jersey and Hamilton plans.

October 1787- As gridlock continues, Hamilton slowly secures the support of an increasing number of state delegations. The convention is still, for all intents and purposes, deadlocked. There are rumors that the convention may end without a decision, and whispers that the Union will no doubt fall apart soon after.

November 1787- The convention adjourns for the winter. In a letter to his wife, James Madison wonders if “this Union of States shall yet persist when next [the convention] meets.”

March 1788- New York militias, hearing rumors from Philadelphia of imminent dissolution of the Union, move across the state’s border into the Republic of Vermont. They are secretly backed financially by wealthy New York landowners.  Sporadic fighting soon breaks out between Vermont and New York militias, though the New York state government denies any support of the militias.

April 1788- The Green Mountains War escalates, as Ethan Allen leads a detachment of Green Mountain boys west into New York, burning farms and villages in retaliation for New York militia attacks. Governor George Clinton, of New York, declares war on Vermont, and summons the New York army and militias.

May 1788- The Second Philadelphia Convention convenes on May 1st. For the past month, a bloody guerrilla conflict has embroiled Vermont and New York, and the specter of civil war hangs over the convention. Noticeably is George Washington, who is trying to broker peace. The convention quickly breaks into three factions again, supporting the Virginia, New Jersey and Hamilton Plan. However, the calls for a strong central government, after the breakout of the Green Mountains War, caused many delegates to throw their support behind Hamilton's plan. Finally, on May 25th, after two weeks of debate, Benjamin Franklin, the oldest delegate at the convention, reluctantly throws his support behind Hamilton's plan. This convinces a majority of delegations, and a compromise plan, using Hamilton's, but also borrowing from other plans, is quickly drafted.

August 1st, 1788- Two months of squabbling had delayed the constitution's signing until the first of August. Two of the three issues fought over all dealt with slavery, while the third dealt with the new monarchy:
1) A "three-fifths compromise" was adopted concerning the population of slaves for representation and tax purposes;
2) Congress was given the power to end the slave trade, but only 20 years after ratification of the constitution; and
3) George Washington was finally convinced to become monarch of the United States, reluctantly agreeing that a strong executive was needed. He refused, however, to take the title of King.

Gouverneur Morris (of Pennsylvania) and Alexander Hamilton wrote the bulk of the constitution, with contributions from James Madison. It would need to be ratified by 9 of 13 states.

November 4th, 1788- Peace is brokered between Vermont and New York. Heavy fighting along the border has caused thousands of deaths, as well as the death of Revolutionary War hero Ethan Allen. Governors Clinton and Chittenden, as well as George Washington sign the Treaty of Castleton.

June 12th, 1789- New York, by a vote or 35 to 22, becomes the 9th state to ratify the constitution, due mostly to the efforts of Governor George Clinton, an ardent supporter of Washington, and thus a reluctant supporter of the constitution. The fight over ratification had seen two sides assemble throughout the country. The first, the Royalists, supported the constitution, and were led by Hamilton, Madison and Morris. They, along with John Jay, wrote the Royalist Papers, a series of essays supporting the constitution. On the other side were the Anti-Royalists, some of whom were against the very principle of a monarch, while others wanted a Bill of Rights added to the constitution. They countered the Royalist papers with the Anti-Royalist Papers, written by Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and Robert Yates. While the constitution was eventually adopted (a need for peace and stability, as well as trust in George Washington by a majority of Americans, were later agreed to be the principle motives behind ratification), the Anti-Royalist papers did popularize the idea of a bill of rights. <sup>2

1</sup>In our timeline, Sherman and Ellsworth were largely responsible for the Great Compromise, which merged the New Jersey and Virginia plans. In this timeline, their deaths lead to a lack of compromise at the convention, allowing Hamilton's idea to gain some traction.
²While Americans were initially wary of a return to monarchy, the Green Mountain War did two things to endear citizens to the new constitution: it lead people to believe that more civil wars between states would soon breakout without drastic change, and it further elevated the would-be King's statue as a man of action, the only man able to unite the Union.

[Lief 🗽]

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Well, Washington did adopt John Parke Custis from Martha's previous marriage, and adopted John Parke Custis' son George Washington Parke Custis as his own after John P. Custis' death. George Washington Custis grew up with Washington, and was treated like his son. Plus, if George Custis becomes King, that opens up the possibility of a certain famous Southern general marrying into the royal family in the 1800s.

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Thanks, I'll try to post an update tonight.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1791-1797
January 1791- The first elections are held. The constitution laid out three branches: the legislative, monarchic, and judicial branches. The legislative branch is bicameral: a lower house (the Senate), with senators elected from congressional districts allotted to states by population and elected in popular elections every 4 years, and an upper house (the Royal Council) where each state sent one Councilor, appointed by the monarch. The Senate elects a Prime Minister, who serves as leader of the Senate, working closely with the monarch to form policy. The Senate is in charge of passing laws, while the Council is in charge of advising the President, has the ability to veto non-spending bills, votes to admit states into the Union, and may declare war at the request of the monarch. The monarch signs legislation and may veto legislation, acts as commander-in-chief, and conducts diplomacy.

Alexander Hamilton, in the weeks before the election, made clear his intentions to lead a Royalist party in the Senate. He convinced many like-minded gentlemen to join his party. The Royalist party would first and foremost support the power of the monarch. They supported a strong central government, a strong military, and government policies in support of business. Thomas Jefferson would also run for the Senate, and with him would run a number of like minded anti-royalists. Unlike Hamilton, however, he did not create a formal party.

The results in the Senate were as follows¹:
Royalists: 39
Anti-Royalists: 26


Congressional Delegations by State, 1791 (gray denotes a 50-50 split)

March 1st 1791- George Washington is formally inaugurated, with Queen Consort Martha close at hand. While he insists on the title of President, rather than King, later historians, as well as many contemporaries, would label him as King George I. After the morning-long inauguration ceremony, he formally appointed his 13 councilors.


King George I

Later that day, the first session of the Senate was called to order. The first business was electing a Prime Minister.

The results for Prime Minister were as follows:
Alexander Hamilton: 36 votes
Thomas Jefferson: 20 votes
John Adams: 3 votes
Not Voting: 6 votes

Alexander Hamilton was sworn in as the first Prime Minister. He appointed James Madison as Deputy Prime Minister, and John Adams as Secretary of State.


Prime Minister Hamilton

The first Senate’s first year was fairly uneventful, as they were mostly concerned with writing procedural laws. However, in 1791, twelve amendments (comprising what would later be known as the Bill of Rights) were approved in the Senate by a 50-4 vote, with 11 not voting. Prime Minister Hamilton, as well as Thomas Jefferson (who by this point has become the de facto opposition leader) both supported the amendments, seen as a needed compromise, and closure on the constitutional debate². In 1793, the Royalists, determined to pay off the debt, passed an excise tax on liquor (couple with many other small tax increases and fees), which George Washington signed into law.

Also in 1793, the Presidential Council voted to admit Vermont and Kentucky to the Union. They officially joined later that year. In 1794, the Whiskey Rebellion broke out, in opposition to the Royalist’s liquor tax. King George I, as commander-in-chief, summoned the army and quashed the rebellion. While Hamilton’s party was initially criticized for passing the tax in the first place, the Royalist’s used Washington’s increased popularity to pass a number of acts expanding the size of the military and the navy, “in defense of the country,” and the major damage to Royalist party was prevented.

In 1793, the French Revolution reached a crescendo, as the French King was executed. The Royalists reacted with outrage, while the anti-Royalists largely supported the revolutionary cause. In late 1792, the size of the Senate was increased to 100 seats, but the admission of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee (in summer of 1794) increased the size to 105. By January of 1795, Thomas Jefferson had officially established the Whig-Republican party, in opposition to the Royalist party.

The Senate in 1794:
Royalist: 39 seats
Whig-Republican: 26 seats

The Senate in 1795:
Royalist: 60 seats (+21)
Whig-Republican: 45 seats (+25)


Congressional Delegations by State, 1795 (gray denotes a 50-50 split)

Vote for Prime Minister:
Hamilton: 58 votes
Jefferson:  44 votes
Not Voting: 3 votes

With George Washington’s popularity, and Hamilton and the Royalists’ shows of loyalty towards the King/President, the Royalists retained their majority, though it was a slightly slimmer one. Among notable freshman senators are Aaron Burr (WR) and George Clinton (R) both from New York. In his second term, Alexander Hamilton pushed an economic plan through the Senate. The economic plan established a national bank, a national mint, a tariff, subsidies for industry, and a national debt. Hamilton proved to be a stubborn Prime Minister in his second term, forcing many of his proposals through with little regard for the minority party. James Madison, Hamilton’s Deputy Prime Minister, quit the Royalist party and the government in disgust at Hamilton’s tactics (and over disagreement with Hamilton’s economic policy), joining Jefferson’s Whig-Republicans. The Second Senate became all but gridlocked, as a handful of Royalists, following Hamilton’s lead, joined the Whig-Republicans in early 1796. Partisan fighting between the two parties was the norm in 1796 and 1797, as the parties quarreled over economic policy and policy towards the French.  The Royalists, who were still nominally in control of the Senate, passed a number of resolutions applauding the British and condemning the French. The French soon broke off all diplomatic ties with the United States, and by late 1797, French privateers had sunk over 500 American merchant ships.

¹"Royalists" refers to members of the Royalist party, as well as independents supporting and voting with the party. "Anti-Royalists" refers to independent Senators opposed to the Royalist party.
²The Bill of Rights is nearly identical to those in our own timeline, and the first two failed to be ratified by ¾ of the states, as in our own timeline.
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Next, increased tensions concerning France, the election of 1799, and the shocking death of a great American.

[Lief 🗽]

Thank you for your comments Ernest. In my time line, the nation is slightly more polarized, and I think Alexander Hamilton, the charismatic, young, hard-line Royalist, would be able to get elected Prime Minister in a senate dominated by his own party. Don't worry though: John Adams isn't finished, and still holds considerable sway amongst moderate Senators.

As for you second point, I hadn't really thought about Rhode Island, but Vermont did join the Union later in my timeline, at the same time Kentucky did, in 1793.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1798 - 1803
In early 1798, Councilor John Jay (R) of New York, along with five other councilors, petitioned King George I to declare war on France. Washington firmly refused. The next month, in the Senate, Hamilton gave a stirring speech in favor of war with France. He implored his fellow Senators to disregard “Francophile cowardice” and write their own bill declaring war. In the middle of the impassioned speech, a group of Whig-Republicans, lead by Aaron Burr rushed the speaker’s podium, shouting Hamilton down. The chamber exploded in chaos, and Burr and Hamilton had to be separated from each other, as they literally fought on the floor of the Senate. With the 1799 election looming, the Royalists published news of the attack on Hamilton, rousing Americans against the “traitorous, French-lover Whigs.” As such, the Royalists saw a major victory in 1799.

Royalist: 68 seats (+8)
Whig-Republican: 37 seats (-8)



After his party’s defeat, Jefferson stepped down as opposition leader. Much of the chamber was still angry at Prime Minister Hamilton, including many Royalists. John Adams, a moderate Royalist, stepped forward as a compromise candidate for Prime Minister. On the first vote, Hamilton held on to the dedicated Royalists, Aaron Burr captured the votes of the dedicated Whig-Republicans, and John Adams took defectors from both parties. A handful of anti-government, “negative radicals” rallied around Nathaniel Macon (WR-NC). In the end, however, the pro-Hamilton vote is barely able to overcome the anti-Hamilton vote, and many anti-Hamilton Royalists flock back to Hamilton’s government.

Vote for Prime Minister:
Alexander Hamilton (R): 52 votes
John Adams (R): 30 votes
Aaron Burr (WR): 17 votes
Nathaniel Macon (WR): 6 votes
Not Voting: 2 votes

In March of 1799, George Washington fell ill, and was no longer able to carry on his duties as monarch. Sixteen-year-old George Washington Parke Custis, grandson and adopted-son of George Washington, as well as next in line to the throne, unofficially took over the King’s duties. Prince George worked closely with Alexander Hamilton, and the Senate to pass the Defense of King and Country Acts in April 1799.¹

Meanwhile, the Coastal War was escalating. French privateers and the small American navy battled throughout the Caribbean and along the Atlantic coast. The British fleet also fought the French along the coast and Caribbean, as Britain sold the United States naval stores and munitions. However, the Royal British Navy and Union Navy were effectively neutral towards each other, fighting the same enemy, but refusing to fight together or share operational plans, throughout 1798 and early 1799, as Washington had refused to ally with the British. But with Washington incapacitated, Hamilton hoped to convince Prince George to seek an agreement with Britain.

Hamilton's plans were stalled on December 14, 1799 however, when King George I passed away. George Washington Curtis took the throne the next day, calling himself King George II. He immediately proposed the building of a royal palace, selecting a plot of land left to him by his adopted father overlooking the Potomac River, near the capital of Washington. He then contacted the young Consul Napoleon of France, and proposed an end to hostilities. Napoleon agreed, and by Summer of 1800, the Treaty of Mortefontaine was signed. During this period, Napoleon and George II became close companions, sending gifts and letters to one another, and sharing ideas on governance.


King George II, 18 years old

The treaty, however, angered Hamilton and the Royalists. Hamilton took to the Senate floor to berate his King, labeling him a "traitor" and "more concerned with the lives of French pirates than American citizens!" King George II, feeling betrayed, responded in kind, arriving in the Senate to call Hamilton a "hot-headed militant craving American bloodshed." In 1802, Hamilton and George II clashed again, as Hamilton refused to approve the purchase of Louisiana from George II's friend Napoleon, outraging the young King. The Whig-Republicans, on the sidelines since 1799, came to George II's side. As the press ran article after article claiming that Hamilton and his party were pushing the United States into European wars, things looked bleak for Hamilton's party. Hamilton announced that if the Royalists kept power, he would not run for a 4th term as Prime Minister. It was, however, no use, and the Whig-Republicans won their first election, ending 12 years of Royalist rule, even defeating Prime Minister Hamilton in his Senatorial re-election bid.

Election of 1803 results ²:
Royalist: 63 seats (-6)
Whig-Republican: 80 seats (+43)
Total: 142 Seats



John Adams declined to run for Prime Minister as a compromise candidate again, instead putting up his own son, recently elected John Quincy Adams (R-MA). However, the Whig-Republicans were in no mood for a compromise candidate, and instead selected James Madison. George Clinton (R-NY), a respected, elder-statesman of the Royalist party, reluctantly became opposition leader.

1803 Prime Minister Election:
James Madison (WR): 73 votes
George Clinton(R): 45 votes
John Quincy Adams (R): 24


Prime Minister James Madison

¹ The parallel of our timeline's Alien and Sedition Acts.
² The number of Senate seats was increased to 142 after the Second Census in 1800. Councilor Isaac Shelby (RW-KY) led the way in admitting the new state, while Councilor Jonathan Trumbull (R-CT) led opposition to the plan, mostly Ohio (like most frontier states) was strongly a Whip-Republican state. The state’s entry into the Union still passed 11-5.

[Lief 🗽]

Great timeline, were the maps created with the EVCalc or did you make them yourself?

I took the maps from Dave's results page (since there aren't any maps for pre-1824 or something in EVCalc), then recolored them in Photoshop.

Awesome timeline!  I'm loving this!

Thanks!

[Lief 🗽]

The Senate in this timeline is for all intents and purposes a re-named House of Representatives with 4 year terms. The Royal Council (my timeline's upper house) functions like the British House of Lords, with the King appointing one Councilor from each state. Senators are elected by the people, and represent a district (or an at-large district).

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1803-1807

In his first month as Prime Minister, James Madison had a formal meeting with King George II. At the top of King George’s list of priorities was the purchase of New Orleans from the French. George II worried that French control of the port, and the anti-French sentiment still at large in the Royalist party and throughout much of the United States, might endanger American access to the valuable trade going in and out of New Orleans. Napoleon had sent French diplomats (and his favorite sister, Pauline, who George II became quite infatuated with) to America, informing the King that Napoleon would be willing to part with the entirety of Louisiana for a sum of about $15 million. Madison was at first skeptical about the treaty, but he agreed to instruct his Whig-Republicans to support the purchase of New Orleans if King George II didn’t veto the repeal of the much despised “Defense of King and Country Acts.” While George II had been a principle participant in the writing and passing of the laws, believing them essential to his effective governance, he grudgingly agreed to Madison’s deal.

In May of 1803, Madison brought up laws repealing the entirety of the Defense of King and Country Acts, and pardoning all Americans imprisoned or made to pay fines because of them. This repeal passed easily, with many Royalists realizing that the laws had hurt them in the 1803 election. The final vote was 93 to 46. Madison brought the purchase of the Louisiana Purchase before the Senate in October of the same year. Though Royalists were ardently against the purchase, spending weeks making speeches against it, the purchase passed rather easily 81 to 51, and was signed into law by George II. Thomas Jefferson, former-opposition leader, proposed an expedition to explore the new Louisiana Territory, and the creation of the Royal Discovery Corps was approved by a vote of 98 to 22.

In 1804, King George II and Prime Minister Madison, along with representatives from France, including Pauline Bonaparte, were in St. Louis for the official transfer of the Louisiana territory. Later that year, in May, King George II saw the Royal Discovery Corps depart from Camp Dubois on their historic journey. George returned to Virginia to oversee the building of Arlington Palace, what would become the official royal palace. In late 1804, George wrote to Napoleon asking to marry his sister Pauline. Napoleon obliged, and sent word that she would come to America after he had been crowned Emperor in December of 1804.

In January of 1805, at Arlington Palace (which was still partially under construction), George II wed twenty-four-year-old Queen Consort Pauline. The wedding was an expensive show of regality, as it marked the American royal family’s union with the royal families of Europe. At the same time, however, the Bonapartes and Washingtons were new, post-Enlightenment royal families, and many Americans saw the marriage as the beginning of a new, enlightened world order. When he returned to Washington City, however, George II was met with a bill passed by the Whig-Republicans drastically cutting the size of the military and navy. George II quickly vetoed the bill, and the veto failed to be overridden, by a vote of 77-64. The Royal Army, George II wrote to the Senate, was “the most important institution in our Kingdom.” Federalist John Q. Adams argued that it was “destined by Divine Providence that the whole continent of North America… be associated in one royal Union”, and that a strong army was the only way to ensure that such a thing came to pass.


Queen Pauline

In March of 1806, the Senate approved the construction of the National Road, a highway that would link the Potomac and Ohio rivers, and eventually stretch to St. Louis on the Mississippi. In April, George II called on the Senate to establish a military academy at Westpoint, a fort his grandfather had been instrumental in building. The Senate passed a bill establishing the United States Royal Military Academy by a close 72-67 vote. Royalists were strongly for the treaty, and managed to convince enough moderate Whig-Republicans to come to their side. The majority of Whig-Republicans however, including Prime Minister Madison, called the act unconstitutional.

With the 1807 election fast approaching, it was clear to the Royalists and Whig-Republicans that the most pressing issue would be military matters, something that had clearly divided the Senate. Many Royalists argued that their pro-military views would be able to secure them the Senate, if not for their support of Britain over France. After George’s marriage to Pauline, and to a lesser extent the Louisiana Purchase, public opinion in much of the United States had turned strongly for France, and thus strongly against the British. The majority of Royalists publicly professed their support of France, but a splinter group, naming themselves the High Royalists, refused to turn against Britain. Their support was confined mostly to the traditional Royalist-strongholds of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, so the election became principally a contest between the Royalists and High Royalists in New England, and the Royalists and Whig-Republicans everywhere else.

The Senate in later 1806:
Royalist: 38 seats
Whig-Republican: 80 seats
High Royalists: 24
Total: 142 Seats

The Election of 1807:
Royalist: 53 seats (+15)
Whig-Republican: 69 seats (-11) 
High Royalists: 20 seats (-4)
Total: 142 Seats



The Royalists were able to pick up 11 Whig-Republicans seats, and 4 High Royalist seats in Massachusetts. The Whig-Republicans also picked up a seat in MA, but lost a seat in Rhode Island, the High Royalist’s only pickup, and lost 11 seats to the Royalists across the country. Prevailing opinion throughout the country leading up to March was that the High Royalists and Royalists would form a coalition government, but the results of the first Prime Minister vote rebutted common wisdom:

First Prime Minister Ballot:
James Madison (WR): 69 votes
John Quincy Adams (R): 53 votes
Timothy Pickering (HR): 20 votes

The vote was down party lines, and James Madison fell just 2 votes short of becoming Prime Minister for a second term. With the senate deadlocked on electing its leader, the Royalists and Whig-Republicans quickly looked to the High Royalists for extra votes. On the second vote, half of the High Royalist party broke ranks, and James Madison was able to claim a slim majority. Ultimately, a significant number of High Royalists realized that war with Britain would be inevitable under a Royalist administration, but under a Whig-Republican administration, neutrality might eventually be seen as a safer option.

Second Prime Minister Ballot:
James Madison (WR): 75 votes
John Quincy Adams (R): 58 votes
Timothy Pickering (HR): 9 votes

In the next update: Madison's second term, scandal in the Royal Court, and the march towards war.

[Lief 🗽]

I really don't see how, at this point, America could keep itself out of a European war. It has basically allied itself completely with Bonaparte and company, going beyond friendship and into a personal union. This does make sense, both the House of Washington and the House of Bonaparte would see themselves as new Enlightenment monarchs out to destroy the traditional order, however this makes them stronger friends than they were in OTL. They should keep building up that army because the British will come knocking at their door soon, and I hope it's not in 1812 you need a good dose of butterfly effect in their to keep things from getting stale.

No, you're right, America and France are about as close as you can get at this point, and war with Britain will come sooner rather than later.

[Lief 🗽]

From what I can find, Pauline was married (to a Borghese) in November of '03, so she wouldn't have been eligible for George.  That said, Napoleon could have anticipated the offer and prevented her marriage into minor Italian royalty.

Yep, in this time line Napoleon doesn't marry Pauline to Camillo Borghese, and instead sends her to America to meet the young George II.

It's a really interesting timeline. Not to mention a really good timeline. Continue the good work Lief.

Thank you. It's good to know that people are enjoying it.

I can't help but think that with America having gotten a King before the French got rid of theirs that there should be some butterflies in the French Revolution.  For instance, with the Americans in the process of adopting a king, Louis XVI might have been less anxious about what the Estates-General might do and might well have supported the Third Estate in its demand that the Estates meet and vote together (as was already the case in a number of provincial assemblies).  It would not take much in the way of butterflies to have affected the course of the French Revolution.  (For example, Louis XVII and his mother Marie-Antoinette might be living in exile in Vienna, if you don't wish to disturb what you've already written.)

Hm... perhaps. Truthfully, I hadn't really thought about how, if at all, the founding of an American monarchy would have affected the early stages of the French Revolution.

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The American Monarchy: 1807-1808
James Madison took control of a Senate in 1807 that was divided in every way but one: the war; Madison’s desire to undo Hamilton’s economic reforms would have to take a back-seat. Except for the small High Royalist party, the entire Senate now approved of war with Britain and her Indian allies. And, contrary to the deluded hopes of many High Royalists, Madison had no plans to pursue peace. In April of 1807, the Senate overwhelmingly passed the Defense of Union Act, a set of laws further increasing the size of the army and navy, as well as outlawing all trade with the British. The Defense of Union Act passed 122-0, as the entire High Royalist bloc had refused to attend the vote in protest. On April 23rd, the Royal Council approved King George’s request for a declaration of War on Great Britain, by a vote of 13-4. On April 30th, the Senate approved an alliance with France, by a vote of 122-0. War had begun.

Immediately after the declaration of war, Britain blockaded the American coast. The Royal Union Navy was able to partially repulse them, as most of the British fleet was tied up in Europe and years of investment had improved the young Royal Union Navy, but the British were still able to wreak havoc on most of America’s shipping. To counter this, the Senate authorized the hiring of hundreds of privateers to counter-attack Britain’s own shipping in the Atlantic and Caribbean. George II, in a speech before the Senate and his generals, laid out the three goals of the war:
1)   The speedy conquest of Canada
2)   The conquest of hostile Native tribes allied to the British
3)   The disruption of British trade in the Caribbean and Atlantic, to aid Napoleon’s war effort
Meanwhile, the British had adopted a defensive strategy. They were far outnumbered by the Americans, and would be unable to send large numbers of troops to reinforce Canada until 1808.

The easiest way to secure control of Canada was through the conquest of Montreal, cutting the British lines of communication. However, support for the war in New England was not strong. George’s other option was an invasion of the West, where Americans were enthused about the prospects of war. George II saw this as a wasteful strategy, one that wouldn’t accomplish his country’s goals. King George II took control of the Royal King’s Army, and amassed a large contingent of American troops and militia in Plattsburg, New York. General Henry Dearborn was appointed commander of the Northeastern Royal Army, stationed at Fort Niagara and Buffalo. Finally, George II ordered Brigadier General William Hull, also Governor of Michigan territory, to take command of the Northwestern Royal Army, and fortify Fort Detroit. George II issued a proclamation to territorial governors giving them free rein to use their militias to fight hostile, pro-British Natives (though, in the eyes of many western governors, all Natives were hostile). Meanwhile, “Warhawks” in the Senate, led by the young Whig-Republican Henry Clay, pushed through the Conscription Act with the help of Secretary of State Monroe, by a vote of 103 to 20. This effectively established a draft throughout the United States.

Conscription took months, forcing George II to delay his assault on Canada until 1808. Meanwhile, he had become estranged from his wife, Pauline. She had failed to give him any heirs or children who survived long past infancy and the young, passionate love between them had all but disappeared. There were rumors throughout Washington that Pauline was engaged in a number of affairs while her husband was with troops in New York. She had even allegedly been seen with former Prime Minister Hamilton. George II, when he heard these rumors, was furious, but he had more pressing matters to attend to. In the winter of 1807, George II met with Alexander Hamilton in New York. The former Prime Minister was still highly respected by High Royalists throughout the country, especially in New England and New York. George II convinced Hamilton to put aside their disagreements and do what was best for the country. Hamilton put his duty to king and country above his political wishes, and agreed to come out in support of the war. He traveled to New England and roused support for the war, arguing that temporary trade losses would eventually be out-weighed by the resources and trade routes America would secure in Canada.

Throughout the winter and spring of 1808, skirmishes had occurred at Fort Maiden and Fort Erie, though neither British nor Americans were able to push very far into each other’s territory. George II was preparing his advance for the summer, and British troops had still not arrived in Canada. Unbeknownst to George II at the time, the British were preparing to invade Spain and Portugal, and they assumed that the Americans would stick to minor skirmishes. The British however, thought wrong, and in August of 1808, as Wellesley landed in Portugal, George II had already crossed the Canadian border.

American War Plans
With King George II's forces in blue, Henry Dearborn's forces in red, and William Hull's forces in green.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1808

In April of 1808, George II left New York City for Plattsburg, and, incidentally, Pauline found out that she was pregnant a few weeks later ¹. George II took his wife’s good news to heart when he crossed the Canadian border in June of 1808. His 10,000-man-strong army would move North up Lake Champlain, leading them straight to Montreal. Meanwhile, the British defending Lower Canada were badly outnumbered. The first battle of the war occurred near Chateaugay, New York. Around 500 Canadian militia and Native warriors fought George II’s army. The Canadian militia broke easily, and George marched on Northward. The first easy battle raised the spirits and the morale of his forces, who had been forced to make camp for months by this point.

Hearing of the easy rout of his militia, Sir James Henry Craig decided to fortify Montreal. Craig was the both the Governor General of the Canadas, and Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada. While Quebec was the capital of his province, he had decided to move his military command to the further south city of Montreal, where, he had figured, he would be more able to effectively command the war effort in both Canadian provinces. By 1808, Craig was in his sixties, and hadn’t seen battle in many years. He had sent Brigadier General Isaac Brock to fortify Upper Canada and relay orders, while he himself would hold off the Americans from advancing north. By summer of 1808, George II’s army had reached Montreal. Unable to take the fortified city by force, he instructed his army to lay siege.

In June of 1808, General Dearborn crossed the Canadian border, and took the unfinished Fort Erie without a fight. He instructed his militia units (many of which refused to move further into Canada) to reinforce the fort and use it as a base of supplies. Dearborn then moved further north, until he met General Isaac Brock, who had hurriedly led a force of troops south from Lower Canada, rendezvousing with Loyalist militias and Native allies along the way. Despite his reinforcements, Brock was still outnumbered. The two armies met at the Battle of Cooksville, a few miles south of York. The British forces were tired and had little time to put up fortifications of any kind. The British regulars broke first, as the Americans took the center. The Loyalist militia, however, held out much longer, eventually retreating into the woods, and continuing on harassment of the marching American troops.

General Dearborn was soon upon York. General Brock had done his best to fortify the city after the Battle of Cooksville, but the defenders’ situation was still less than ideal. American naval forces under Isaac Chauncey had won a number of small naval engagements on Lake Ontario, and were now bringing forces across the lake from New York for an amphibious attack on York. On July 2nd, 1808, the Battle of York had begun. Commodore Chauncey’s forces were a handful of brigs and corvettes, supported by 15 schooners. He landed forces four kilometers north-east of York. As Americans were disembarking on the Canadian shore, General Dearborn’s men moved north. The British had a number of forts and artillery pieces in the area, but their bombardment was ineffective. By mid-day, Dearborn had won a number of skirmishes, and Chauncey was bombarding the city’s fortifications. Despite all this, General Brock refused to retreat, and the charismatic 38-year-old General rallied his forces for a frontal attack on Dearborn. He ordered his riflemen and Native auxiliaries to stall the Americans coming from the North. The battle between Brock and Dearborn’s forces lasted for hours, going back and forth between the two sides. Eventually, news reached Brock that the northern American forces were advancing on the city. He ordered a retreat, and took his regular troops north. Meanwhile, the militias were sent back to York, to surrender the town to the Americans. Dearborn’s forces marched into the city that evening, but a few hundred militiamen, former American Loyalists who had moved to Canada, refused to surrender the city. They ambushed Dearborn’s column. In the ensuing chaos, General Dearborn was mortally wounded. Disorganized and leaderless, the Americans engaged in a chaotic city fight with the Loyalists until the next day. During the night battle, a young artillery captain by the name of Winfield Scott had assumed command of a good number of Americans, and by mid-day on the 3rd of July he had assumed command of the city. Winfield Scott immediately took it upon himself to begin fortifying the city, until Brigadier General Jacob Brown arrived with New York militia reinforcements and took command of Montreal two weeks later.

On the war’s third front, things did not go as well for the Americans. General William Hull advanced into Canada in September, taking Fort Maiden after a quick siege. He met Upper Canada’s Lieutenant Governor Francis Gore along the Thames River in May, and on May 27th, 1808, the First Battle of the Thames took place. General Hull advanced cautiously, beginning battle with the defending Canadians in the early morning. By midday, General Hull’s troops had begun to gain the upper hand, when he heard word from scouts of a large Native army gathering to the west. Afraid that they would flank his army and slaughter them, General Hull ordered a retreat. As his army began to pull away, roughly 500 natives hit his left flank. Hull’s army, poorly trained in comparison to Dearborn’s or the King’s armies, fled the battlefield in a disorderly rout.  General Hull was captured in the ensuing chaos, and eventually scalped and killed.

His army of the Northwest regrouped and retreated to Fort Detroit, where they built further fortifications and set up camp for the winter. King George II received word of Hull and Dearborn’s fates as he besieged Montreal. He promoted Jacob Brown to Major General and commanding General of the North-Eastern Army (Captain Winfield Scott was also promoted for his valor and service, and reassigned to Sackett’s Harbor, where he was to build up forces for an assault across Lake Erie on Kingston). George II appointed Indiana Territory Governor William Henry Harrison commanding General of the North-Western Army. Harrison had been largely successful in brutally crushing a number of tribes in his territory since the beginning of the war, and had shown his natural abilities as a commander ².

¹Some will also point out that Alexander Hamilton left New York City the day after George II did, and to this day there persist conspiracies that Hamilton was the true father of the child, though most serious historians have dismissed these rumors.
²Harrison was able to conquer approximately 3 million acres from tribes in Ohio and Indiana through the Treaty of Fort Wayne. After the signing of the treaty in 1807, he led militia troops against dissenting Shawnee, killing two important leaders of the tribe, who were incidentally brothers, by the names of Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1809

On January 4th, 1809, Pauline gave birth to Maria Rachel Custis Washington. PrincessMaria was a healthy baby girl, but Queen Pauline would die during childbirth.

When the New Year began on January 1st, 1809, the situation for the British looked bleak. Already, thousands of loyalists who had immigrated to Canada after the Revolutionary War were fleeing to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. On December 21st, 1808, James Henry Craig had died in Montreal, and three days later, after a six-month-long siege, Montreal surrendered. George II ordered the British regulars disbanded and confiscated the weapons of militia and Natives. Both sides had taken bitter losses from food shortages and the fierce Winter, but George still had his army more or less intact, while the northern-most British army in Lower Canada was now disbanded. American forces were also in effective control of the land around Lake Ontario (except for the remaining British stronghold of Kingston).

The British, by the start of 1809, had effectively given up on retaining Lower and Upper Canada, as defeating Napoleon in Spain had become a much more pressing concern. Unwillingly to completely give in though, British government officials formed a plan to stall the Americans. Using pro-British, anti-war sentiment in New England to their advantage, they contacted a number of High Royalist politicians, including Senators Harrison Gray Otis and Chauncey Goodrich. Britain offered supplies, money and Loyalist militia from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia if the Senators Otis and Goodrich led similar-minded men in an attempt at secession. Early victories had dulled anti-war sentiment among much of the general population, but the seeds of a rebellion had nevertheless been sewn. When about thirty men (all of them High Royalist politicians, most of them Senators) met in Hartford, Connecticut in February of 1809, they agreed to gather arms and forcibly take control of the states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and then secede from the Union¹.

On March 1st, 1809, a group of two-hundred men, led by Senator George Cabot stormed the capitol building and executed Governor James Sullivan. Simultaneous “revolutions” occurred in Connecticut and Rhode Island. High Federalist papers, which had a near monopoly on most of the press printed in the region, had been told the night before to print stories extolling the virtues of this new, glorious revolution (as well as drastically inflating the number of rebels there actually were). It had been the rebels plans that people would rise up in support of the revolutionaries, and, with the help of Canadian loyalists coming through Maine, they would be able to hold on to control. This was far from the truth.

Alexander Hamilton, who had been touring New England drumming up support for the war, upon hearing the news, took control of a local regiment of Massachusetts militia, and marched to Boston. On March 3rd, they arrived in Boston, and a bitter battle broke out on city’s streets. Half-way through the battle, former-Prime Minister was hit by a stray bullet above his right hip. The bullet ricocheted off his rib, damaging his diaphragm and liver. He collapsed to the ground instantly and dropped his weapon. Local Bostonians, seeing their former (beloved) Prime Minister, rushed into the streets, falling upon the rebels. By the afternoon of March 3rd, all the rebels had been killed or arrested, and the body of Alexander Hamilton had been carried to a local church, where he died the next morning².

The news of Hamilton’s death soon spread across the country, and Americans were rallied together more than ever. General Harrison led his forces east in April, crushing a British army at the Second Battle of the Thames, and capturing Lieutenant Governor Francis Gore. By May, Harrison reached York. Jacob Brown and William Henry Harrison marched their forces north, to siege the town of Kingston. Kingston was the final holdout in Upper Canada. As American troops neared the city, a British envoy approached them: General Brock had surrendered, and British forces in Canada had effectively been defeated³.

¹The rebellion would later be known as the March First Treason.
²Hamilton was buried in New York city. Gouverneur Morris, George Clinton, and Aaron Burr gave eulogies at his funeral. Alexander Hamilton would be remembered with high regard throughout the Union, not only as the first Prime Minister, but as a patriot who gave his life for his country.
³A guerilla war would continue for another five years, as Loyalists and Natives harassed American forts and troops.
--------------------
In the next update: the war officially ends, the election of 1811, and the rise of a new political party and the death of another.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1809 - 1811

King George II had arrived in Washington in February of 1809, to welcome his new daughter, and say goodbye to his deceased wife. The loss of Alexander Hamilton in March also weighed heavily upon the 28-year-old monarch. He unofficially abdicated his responsibilities as commander in chief, though by March of 1809 the British had been all but defeated anyway. The surrender of General Brock in June was the first good news the King heard in many months. He asked Prime Minister Madison to emissaries from the government to Britain to negotiate a peace. Many Americans, particularly in the west, clamored for further expansion: the conquest of Rupert’s land, an invasion of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and an invasion of Spanish territory. James Madison outright refused to fund further military action, angering war hawks in his party. Senator Thomas Jefferson and Deputy Prime Minister Aaron Burr left for the remainders of British North America in September of 1809, and by March 1810, the Treaty of Halifax had been signed. The treaty relinquished control of Upper and Lower Canada to the United States, as well as ended the British blockade of the American coast.

The treaty was ratified 83 to 37. Royalists and Whig-Republicans supported the treaty (along with the remaining High Royalists, most of whom had been killed or executed after the March First Treason; by the end of the Congressional term all remaining High Royalist senators had resigned in disgrace), but war hawks, led by the charismatic young Henry Clay countered that America was surrendering to the British right as they had the opportunity to gain control of the continent. War hawks had expected at least the concession of Florida or various other British colonies. The war hawks saw the signing the treaty as signing a way a perfect opportunity for expansion. Henry Clay contemplated splitting from the Whig-Republican party and forming his own party, but he was talked out of it by other Senators. Another bill was passed unanimously after the ratification of the treaty, establishing a Quebec Territory and a Canada Territory (out of Lower and Upper Canada, respectively).

In August 1810, the Royalists put up a bill renewing the National Bank’s charter. Royalists were ardently in favor of renewing “Hamilton’s Bank”, as were the war hawks lead by Clay. But Clay’s own Whig-Republican party was largely opposed to it. Prime Minister James Madison, while seeing the need for a National Bank after the war, was unable to convince a majority of his party. With numerous vacancies created by the resignation or deaths of all the High Republicans, the Whig-Republicans were effectively in control of the Senate. In the end, the bill renewing the National Bank’s charter failed, by a close vote of 59 to 62. Henry Clay was outraged, but he refused to join the Royalists, who he, as a westerner, saw as elitist New Englanders. He announced in September the creation of the National Party, an expansionist, pro-military, pro-internal improvement party. The party fielded candidates throughout the country, focusing mostly on the western and southern states.

James Madison stated before the 1811 election that he would not run for re-election, opening the way for a new Whig-Republican to take control of the party. Despite the emergence of the National Party, the Whig-Republicans were able to claim a third straight victory, largely on their successful management of the war¹. The High Royalists disappeared, unable to win a single race. Whig-Republicans were able to make gains in New England, as High Royalist, Royalist and National Party candidates split the anti-Whig-Republican vote. The Royalists lost most of their remaining Southern seats to the National Party.

The Senate in December 1810:
Royalist: 50 seats
Whig-Republican: 63 seats
National Party: 9 seats
Total: 142 (20 Vacancies) Seats



The Election of 1811:
Royalist: 37 seats (-13)
Whig-Republican: 77 seats (+14)
National Party: 28 seats (+19)
Total: 142 Seats

On the first ballot, no candidate was able to claim victory, as the Whig-Republicans were split between a slew of candidates: Deputy Prime Minister Aaron Burr (NY), Secretary of State James Monroe (VA), and William H. Crawford (GA). Aaron Burr was the natural successor, but Crawford picked up the support of Southern Senators who hoped that a Prime Minister from the Deep South would lead to more success against the National Party in western and southern states. Meanwhile, anti-slavery Whig-Republicans, scared by Burr’s brashness, flocked to Adams. Henry Clay was the natural leader of the National Party, while John Quincy Adams stepped down as Whig-Republican leader, replaced by the popular former-mayor of New York, DeWitt Clinton.

First Ballot:
Aaron Burr (WR-NY): 51 votes
DeWitt Clinton (R-NY): 37 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 28 votes
James Monroe (WR-VA): 15 votes
William H. Crawford (WR-GA): 11 votes

Realizing that he had no chance after coming in last, Crawford dropped out before the second ballot, endorsing Burr. Monroe (who had endorsed Burr before the first ballot) also called on his supporters to show party unity and vote for Burr.

Second Ballot:
Aaron Burr (WR-NY): 75 votes
DeWitt Clinton (R-NY): 37 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 28 votes
James Monroe (WR-VA): 2 votes

¹The war with Britain over Canada would come to be known as the Canadian-American War, though one may see it in other books as the War of 1807 or the Second Anglo-American War.

[Lief 🗽]

The seats held by High Royalists. Most of the High Royalist senators were part of the rebellion, and were thus imprisoned or killed. The remainder of High Royalists resigned in disgrace after the majority of their party was shown to be traitors.

[Lief 🗽]

The seats held by High Royalists. Most of the High Royalist senators were part of the rebellion, and were thus imprisoned or killed. The remainder of High Royalists resigned in disgrace after the majority of their party was shown to be traitors.

But why are there still vacancies after the election?  And what's with Georgia on the map?

Ah, sorry. I copy/pasted from above and forgot to take that bit out. George's delegation is split 50-50: two National Party and two Whig-Republican.

[Lief 🗽]

If people want me to do more updates, yeah, I'll continue to update. I don't have a huge amount of time, but I could probably do some updates over the weekend.

[Lief 🗽]

I'll be updating again tomorrow, and hopefully at least once during the week.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1811-1815

Prime Minister Aaron Burr came to power over a nation still recovering from three years of war. The country was also still divided over its position on the continent and in the world. King George II was still a close friend of Napoleon, and the two countries were still on friendly terms. But the realities of warfare meant that neither country could aid one another. At the same time, Henry Clay, as leader of the ascendant National Party, pushed for an invasion and annexation of Spanish Florida and a further buildup of forts and soldiers in newly acquired Canada. He warned that the continuing guerilla activities in the region would one day enable Britain to reacquire these territories.


Prime Minister Aaron Burr

Aaron Burr, while supportive of expansion, saw little support for continued warfare in his own party or the Royalist party. In November of 1811, John Quincy Adams (R-MA) and William Lowndes (N-SC) co-sponsored the Canada and Quebec Settlement Act, which would do a number of things to encourage settlement of the Canadian territories: 1) Land on the Canadian frontier would be sold at premium to American and European settlers alike; 2) Europeans immigrating to Canada and buying land would be given American citizenship after a period of one year; 3) the Federal Government would invest in internal improvements in Canada Territory and Quebec Territory, including roads and canals. Aaron Burr lead staunch opposition to the bill (primarily due to the third clause), but the Royalist and National parties were both firmly in support of it. A number of newly elected Northern Whig-Republicans , led by John Chandler of Massachusetts¹, proposed a compromise that would gain their vote; a separate bill to be passed whose primary goal would be to quell the on-going guerilla violence in Canada Territory, a few miles away from their own states.

Adams and Lowndes worked together with Chandler to craft the Canadian Security Act of 1812. It called for the speedy admission of Canada and Quebec territory into the Union, reparations towards loyalists and Canadians who had been robbed of territory in the War of 1807 or the Revolutionary War, and laws formally protecting the rights of the French and Catholic majority in Quebec Territory and minority in Canada Territory. These measures were thought to be able to squelch the guerrilla violence in Canada. Finally in March of 1812, with the support of Northeastern Whig-Republicans, as well as the backing of the National and Royalist parties, the Canada and Quebec Settlement Act and the Canadian Security Act were passed (by votes of 75 to 63 and 81 to 57, respectively). In 1813, the Royal Council approved the entry of Louisiana (1 Senator), Ontario (1 Senator) and Quebec (8 Senators) as the 18th, 19th and 20th states.

After the loss of his wife and the loss of his good friend Alexander Hamilton, King George had retreated to his newly-built Arlington Palace. There he received correspondence from Napoleon, who complained of the American government’s lack of courage in continuing the struggle against the British, though Napoleon made it clearly that he didn’t blame George. Privately, Napoleon would later blame his defeat on the withdrawal of American forces in 1811, which, the petit corporal argued, allowed the British to focus on Europe and ultimately defeat him. Regardless of his French friend’s misfortunes, George II soon involved himself in the aristocratic lives of rich Virginian plantation owners, returning to the Royal District only to hastily sign the occasional bill. He introduced his sister, Princess Eleanor, to William Henry Fitzhugh, son of William Fitzhugh, who lived in his Ravensworth Mansion, and rented another house in Alexandria to a poor widow, and relative of Fitzhugh, by the name of Anne Hill Lee. Eleanor would marry William H. Fitzhugh in August of 1813. The Fitzhugh family and the Lee family were quite close, and before long King George was introduced to Anne Hill Lee and her children, who often played together with George’s daughter, young Princess Maria.

Things went from bad to worse in France in 1814, and in February of 1814, Napoleon asked King George to allow his son to escape to exile in America. King George II grudgingly consented to his friend’s wish, and in March of 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte II was secretly sent to the United States. In June of 1814, Napoleon was captured and later exiled to the island of Elba. Napoleon’s defeat sent shock through much of the United States. Many in the Senate argued that the country should prepare for war, as Britain would surely try to regain her territories in Canada. The Royal Army Preparation Act was passed in September of 1814, with support from the Prime Minister as well as the National and Royalist party leaders, by a vote of 132 to 9, which called for the enlistment of five thousand more soldiers, as well as the strengthening of forts in Canada. Guerrilla attacks had died down somewhat since 1811, but there were still occasional skirmishes and raisings of settlements. King George II, however, wanted no part in another war, but his only bargaining chip was Napoleon II, and he couldn’t betray his old friend. The year of 1814 ended with Americans rapidly preparing for war, and the National Party was able to capitalize on the impending war. While the Whig-Royalists ran on their War of 1807 credentials, the National Party criticized them for being dovish. The Royalist party concentrated on their northeastern strongholds as well as the new Canadian states, arguing that they, the party of Hamilton, were the only ones able and willing to defend the border states.

The result was a closely split election. The Royalists regained many of the seats they had lost in the Northeast in 1811. They also gained the majority of the new Canadian seats, and were able to pick up a handful of southern seats. The size of the Southern and Western states had grown monumentally since the last census, and the National Party was able to pick most of these newly created seats. They also competed in the Northeast for the first time, picking up a handful of seats (most notably 2 out of 4 seats in New Hampshire). Finally, the Whig-Republicans lost a number of their Northeastern seats and held on to only a few frontier seats. However, despite all this, none of the three parties was able to claim a majority.

The Senate in 1814:
Royalist: 37 seats
Whig-Republican: 77 seats
National Party: 28 seats
Total: 142 Seats



The Election of 1815:
Royalist: 62 seats (+25)
Whig-Republican: 63 seats (-14)
National Party: 69 seats (+41)
Total: 194 Seats <sup>2

1</sup> John Chandler had been a hero of the War of 1807, having led the Maine Militia in a number of battles. He was eventually captured by the British in 1810 and released at the war’s end.
² After re-apportionment following the 1810 census.

[Lief 🗽]

Thanks for the comments guys. This will probably be the last update until the weekend.

The American Monarchy: 1815 - 1819

Throughout the country in February of 1815 there was talk as to who the next Prime Minister would be. Since the ratification of the new constitution over twenty years earlier, there had never been a party without a majority (or at least a near majority) of seats in the Senate. As Americans were worrying about the possibility of a lack of government when the Senate convened for the first time in March, word from France arrived: Napoleon Bonaparte had escaped from Elba and taken control of France once again. Napoleon wrote George II a letter in March of 1815, asking for his son to be sent back to France. The letter never arrived in America, however, as it was intercepted by a British ship.

In March of 1815, the Senate met for the first time since the election in January. There had been talks between the parties of forming a coalition, but nothing substantial had come about. Thus, it was no surprise than on the first vote, the Senate was deadlocked.

First Ballot:
Henry Clay (N-KY): 69 votes
Aaron Burr (RW-NY): 63 votes
Rufus King (R-NY): 62 votes
Votes needed to win: 98

The second and third ballots were identical to the first, and the first day of the new Senate ended without a government in place. That night, James Monroe (RW-VA), Deputy Prime Minister, met with Aaron Burr and convinced him to step down. He argued that he could build consensus and convince enough Royalists and Nationals to split with their parties and form a shaky coalition.

James Monroe announced his candidacy for Prime Minister the next day.

Fourth Ballot:
James Monroe (WR-VA): 77 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 60 votes
Rufus King (R-NY): 57 votes
Votes needed to win: 98

Fifth Ballot:
James Monroe (WR-VA): 86 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 58 votes
Rufus King (R-NY): 50 votes
Votes needed to win: 98

On the sixth ballot, John Quincy Adams (R-MA), realizing that Monroe was gaining votes and unwilling to allow the Whig-Republicans to control a 4th straight government, broke with his party and threw his hat into the ring. Surprisingly, he picked up a majority of Royalist support, and put a dent in Monroe’s rising support.

Sixth Ballot:
James Monroe (WR-VA): 72 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 58 votes
John Q. Adams (R-MA): 39
Rufus King (R-NY): 25 votes
Votes needed to win: 98

On the seventh ballot, however, both Monroe and Adams stalled, and the Senate was adjourned for a second day.

Seventh Ballot:
James Monroe (WR-VA): 69 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 59 votes
John Q. Adams (R-MA): 51
Rufus King (R-NY): 15 votes
Votes needed to win: 98

That same night, Henry Clay met with John Quincy Adams, and suggested a coalition between their two parties. Adams would become Prime Minister, Clay would become Deputy Prime Minister, Clay would appoint a National party member to Secretary of State (as the National Party was the larger of the two coalition partners) and the rest of the cabinet posts and leadership positions would be divided equally. Clay would also get a say in the Prime Minister’s policy. With this agreement between the two parties, Rufus King took his name out of the running, and the next day the Royalist-National coalition was formed.¹

Eighth Ballot:
John Q. Adams (R-MA): 131 votes
James Monroe (WR-VA):  63 votes
Votes needed to win: 98


Prime Minister John Q. Adams

The coalition was very large, controlling over 2/3 of the seats in the Senate, and possessing a veto-proof majority. Their first act was to re-establish the Bank of the United States, whose charter had not been renewed since the close vote in 1810. The bank was established by a quick and over-whelming vote in April of 1815. In May, as Napoleon’s second reign continued and war once again ravaged the European continent, Whig-Republicans led by opposition leader James Monroe tried to pass the Neutrality Act, which recognized Napoleon as the ruler of France, but stated America’s neutrality towards wars in Europe. Despite some support from wavering Royalists, Adams and Clay worked to bring down the bill. While they supported de facto neutrality, at least until Britain became hostile towards the United States, they did not want to appear weak in the eyes of Americans or the world. The bill failed 79 to 114.

Adams passed a bill increasing the size of the United States Royal Navy in May of 1815. Speaking on the Senate floor, Prime Minister Adams stated that “our most pressing duty is the strengthening of the defenses of the Kingdom, lest the British replace our benevolent King George with that senile tyrant in London.” In June, word reached the United States that Napoleon had been defeated at a battle in Belgium and severely injured. Weeks later the Americans were shocked to hear that the Emperor of France had died from his injuries, while in a British prison. War, everyone assumed, was inevitable now, as the British would be able to fully focus on regaining Canada.

But in July, aware that his friend was finally defeated, and eager to save his nation from the British veterans of the Napoleonic Wars, George II began negotiations with the British, culminating in the Treaty of Quebec. George II agreed to pay the British heavy war reparations, as well as return the son of Napoleon to his mother in Austria. The United States would also surrender claims to Oregon Country above the 49th parallel (which would be extended west as the new boundary between American and British possessions), though Oregon Country south of the line would still be under “joint occupancy.” In return for all this, Britain would permanently cede Ontario and Quebec. The treaty was a relief to Americans (and war-weary British alike). The treaty was approved unanimously in the fall of 1815.

The year 1816 saw the admittance of the state of Indiana to the United States (with one Senate seat), and War of 1807 hero William Henry Harrison was elected as the state’s first governor. Prime Minister Adams continued to work with his party and the National party to form policy. In 1817 and 1818 the Royalist-National coalition approved the building of numerous internal improvements, chief among them roads in the west and Ontario and Quebec. Henry Clay and John Calhoun (N-SC), also co-sponsored the Tariff of 1817, aimed at protecting American industry from cheap European competition. Mississippi was added as the 22nd state at the end of the year (with one Senate seat).

In 1818, George II had Prime Minister Adams send Secretary of State John Calhoun to negotiate with Spain over the acquisition of Florida territory. At the same time, a militia general by the name of Andrew Jackson had led Georgia and Tennessee into Florida on a chase after Seminole natives (he had originally been ordered by Adams to fight the Natives in Georgia, but had not been ordered to advance in Florida). Andrew Jackson was ordered to return immediately, as he seized a number of Spanish forts and had derailed negotiations. Prime Minister Adams pardoned Jackson of any wrong doing, however, and in December of 1818, a month before elections, the Calhoun-Onis Treaty was signed and ratified, formally ceding Florida to the United States and ending border disputes between Spain and the United States. However, the Spanish government had some qualms with the treaty, and negotiations continued. The year ended with the state of Illinois joining the Union (with one Senate seat).

The election of 1819 was a moderate victory for the Royalist and National parties, as their coalition had enjoyed a prosperous and successful four years. The National party gained all the newly created frontier seats. The Whig-Republicans were able to keep their losses low due to vote splitting in some districts between the Royalists and Nationals. Furthermore, the Nationals and Royalists had won 4 years before chiefly on their war policies, not necessarily their economic policies. With the specter of war with Britain gone, many voters switched back to the Whig-Republicans. This too helped stem Whig-Republican losses.

The Senate in 1818:
Royalist: 62 seats
Whig-Republican: 63 seats
National Party: 69 seats
Total: 194 Seats



The Election of 1819:
Royalist: 66 seats (+4)
Whig-Republican: 57 seats (-6)
National Party: 74 seats (+5)
Total: 197 Seats

¹ Some amateur historians wonder why Henry Clay, with the larger party, did not become coalition leader. The simple answer is that John Q. Adams was regarded as an established statesman, with the support of both Nationals and Royalists. Meanwhile, Clay was seen as rash and young, and many Royalists refused to support his premiership.

In the next update: a constitutional crisis!

[Lief 🗽]

I figured that MS and AL would be added as separate states to increase the number of slave states. Remember that in this period, Ontario and Quebec are two extra free states putting the Union out of balance.

[Lief 🗽]

Eh, that's true. I guess I could redraw the map for next update.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1819-1821

In February of 1819, a month after the election Sen. Henry Clay and Sen. Daniel Webster (representing the National Party) and Prime Minister John Quincy Adams and Sen. William H. Crawford of Georgia (representing the Royalists) met in New York City. They all agreed that the coalition had been successful, and consented to once again form a coalition in March. Adams would continue as Prime Minister, and the cabinet positions would remain largely unchanged.

The new senate convened on March 1st, 1819, and the vote for Prime Minister was unsurprising. John Quincy Adams easily gained his second term on the first ballot. James Monroe was still the leader of the Whig-Republicans, and put up his name, fully aware that he had no chance. A few National Party members voted for Henry Clay in protest, unsatisfied that their party was not coalition leader.

First ballot:
John Q. Adams (R-MA):  129
James Monroe (WR-VA): 57
Henry Clay (N-KY): 11
Needed to win: 99

Prime Minister Adams began his second term with widespread approval throughout the country, and a solid majority in the Senate. Later that year, the Royal Council approved the entry of Missouri and Alabama into the Union. Both of these states were slave states, but with their admittance the ratio of free to slave states was still 13 to 12. While some southern Senators saw a problem with uneven states, the majority raised no objection; the Royal Council, the body which directly represented states, had little real power, and senators saw themselves only beholden to their own districts.

The first few months of Adams’ term went well, with the passage of the Royal Flag Act of 1819, establishing the flag we are now familiar with. James Barbour (N-VA) and John Calhoun authored the Land Use and Settlement Act which passed in November of 1819. The act made land in the west cheaper, and encouraged further settlement of the western territories and states. While this act was passing however, a rapid succession of bank closures throughout the northeast occurred. It was at first waved off as an isolated incident, but by 1820, banks had closed throughout the United States. Unemployment and foreclosure rates skyrocketed, as both the industrial and agricultural sectors slumped¹.

At first, the Adams government decided to ignore the economic downturn, confident that it would be a short-term trend. The Whig-Republican opposition railed against the Royalist-National government for causing this crisis, with their high spending, their bank, and their tariff. Unfortunately for the Prime Minister, the economy had collapsed further by March 1820. Adams continued to refuse to do anything, however, and most of his Royalist senators backed him. At the same time, the Whig-Republicans were denouncing him for not repealing the tariffs and abolishing the national bank. Many Senators in the National party had also turned against their once-ally, denouncing Adams for not intervening in the economy through increased tariffs and public works proposals.

Finally, in June 1820, James Monroe called for a no-confidence vote in Prime Minister Adams. No one was really sure what would happen if the vote passed: there was nothing about no-confidence votes in the constitution. There was also nothing in the constitution concerning the Senate dissolving before the end of its four-year term. The King was, however, constitutionally obligated to dissolve the Senate every four years for elections to take place. Before the vote could take place, however, John Quincy Adams resigned as Prime Minister on June 28th, 1820. He stated that, though his administration had been a prosperous and successful one, he did not have the strength to lead the nation in this period of crisis. The next day, Henry Clay announced that we would not be standing for election as Prime Minister, and advised his party to support William H. Crawford², the Secretary of the Treasury, and highest ranking Royalists after Adams. When the Senate reconvened on June 31st, the vote for Prime Minister was as follows³:

William H. Crawford (R-GA):  113
James Monroe (WR-VA): 57
Henry Clay (N-KY): 11
Abstain: 26
Needed to win: 99


Prime Minister William H. Crawford

Prime Minister Crawford, from the day he assumed the premiership, was attacked at every turn. As the former Secretary of the Treasury, the Whig-Republicans, and many Nationals, blamed Crawford for the crisis. He proposed a modest increase in the tariff in July, but the Whig-Republicans shot his plan down for doing too much and the Nationals denounced it for doing too little. In August, with the economy still in recession, Monroe pushed ahead with the no confidence resolution, this time against Crawford’s government. On August 3rd, Henry Clay, realizing that Crawford was done, as large blocs of his own party pledged to vote no confidence, officially broke with his coalition partner, and voiced his support of the resolution. When the senate convened on August 4th, 1820, there was little debate. The vote of no confidence passed overwhelmingly, 134 to 61. Crawford laughed the vote off as having little consequence; he had already been voted Prime Minister, and he argued that he should remain until George II dissolved the Senate in 1823. The Whig-Republicans and Nationals argued that the King had the authority to dissolve parliament, no matter the date.

King George II, after weighing his options for a few weeks, issued a royal decree dissolving the Senate and calling for elections in December, with the new Senate to convene in January 1821. The Royalists argued that he had over-stepped his constitutional boundaries; the Whig-Republicans and National Party largely praised his decision. Attorney-General William Wirt (R-MD) went the Supreme Court, to argue that the King’s action was unconstitutional. James Monroe, leader of the Whig-Republicans, responded in kind, arguing in the King’s favor before the Supreme Court. In the ruling of Wirt v. Monroe, the court stated in a short opinion that the King did have the authority to dissolve parliament in “crises such as those which currently assail our Union.” Defeated, the Royalists then turned to campaigning. Government business had stalled completely. Meanwhile, through the fall and winter of 1820, the economic crisis began to abate in some regions, and worsen in others.

In November of 1820, the Whig-Republicans were rewarded with the largest electoral victory in history. The Royalist party was crushed throughout the country, losing a majority of their seats to both National and Whig-Republican candidates. They were relegated to a handful of seats in their traditional stronghold of New England. The National Party also lost an incredible number of seats throughout the nation. Pickups of Royalist seats helped to stem their losses somewhat, though their former coalition partner party all but collapsed in the process.

The Senate before the Election:
Royalist: 66 seats
Whig-Republican: 57 seats
National Party: 74 seats
Total: 197 Seats


Delegations of the states following the election of 1820

The Election of 1820:
National Party: 63 seats (-11)
Whig-Republican: 112 seats (+55)
Royalist: 24 seats (-42)
Total: 199 Seats

King George II ordered the Senate to convene and create a government as soon as possible, so on December 2nd, 1820, 199 senators met in the capital city to cast a single ballot for Prime Minister. James Monroe, long-time leader of the Whig-Republican party, had announced his plans to serve as Prime Minister days earlier and won with unanimous support from his own party. Meanwhile, the Royalist leadership structure had been shattered, with most of the former government’s cabinet members having resigned or been defeated. With no clear leader, the Royalists split. Half their number backed James Monroe, hoping for a spot in the government, while the other half flocked to their former coalition partner, Henry Clay.


Prime Minister James Monroe

First Ballot:
James Monroe (WR-VA): 124 votes
Henry Clay (N-KY): 75 votes
Needed to win: 100 votes

After the vote, the Senate immediately recessed for the winter. When the Senate met again in February 1821, Madison summarized his plans for the next four years, promising that his party would repeal the majority of the tariffs, defund and abolish the national bank, end investments in many of the internal improvements throughout the country, and pass a constitutional amendment giving the King the unquestionable power to dissolve the Senate after a no confidence vote, all by the end of the year 1822.

¹ The economic incident, and the ensuing constitutional struggle, would come to be known as the Crisis of 1820.
² Most historians suspect that Henry Clay, ever the power-seeking politician, refused to assume the mantle of Prime Minister after Adams resigned for fear that the continuing economic crisis would permanently end his career, as is had Adams’.
³ Thirty-seven National Party members did not listen to their party leader’s advice: some voted for Henry Clay, while others abstained from the vote altogether.

[Lief 🗽]

List of American Prime Ministers:
Alexander Hamilton (R-NY): 1791-1803
James Madison (WR-VA): 1803-1811
Aaron Burr (WR-NY): 1811-1815
John Q. Adams (R-MA): 1815-1820
William H. Crawford (R-GA): 1820
James Monroe (WR-VA): 1820-

List of Opposition Leaders:
Thomas Jefferson (WR-VA): 1791-1799
Aaron Burr (WR-NY): 1799-1803
George Clinton (R-NY): 1803-1805
John Q. Adams (R-MA): 1805-1811
DeWitt Clinton (R-NY): 1811-1812
Rufus King (R-NY): 1812-1815
James Monroe (WR-VA): 1815-1820
Henry Clay (N-KY): 1820-

List of American Monarchs:
King George I: 1791-1799
King George II: 1799-

[Lief 🗽]

Heh, I had never heard that Hamilton's oldest son was killed in a duel only three years before his father. Thanks for the suggestion.

[Lief 🗽]

The American Monarchy: 1821-1826

The Government as of 1821:
Prime Minister: James Monroe (WR-VA)
Deputy Prime Minister: Daniel D. Tompkins (WR-NY)
Majority Whip: Aaron Burr (WR-NY)
Secretary of State: Presley O’Bannon (WR-KY)
Secretary of the Treasury: Richard Rush (WR-PA)
Secretary of War: Andrew Jackson (WR-TN)
Attorney General: Roger B. Taney (WR-MD)

James Monroe picked a cabinet with a number of newly-elected Senators. Andrew Jackson, hero of the Seminole Wars, and Presley O’Bannon, marine hero of the Barbary Wars, had both been recruited to run in 1820, and were given the honor of cabinet positions in Monroe’s government. Aaron Burr, respected former Prime Minister, had come out of retirement to run in 1820, and was rewarded with the position of Majority Whip.

Prime Minister Monroe’s three-point economic plan was simple and supported by the vast majority of his party. Even a few Royalists supported his economic plans. By September of 1821, the National Bank had been defunded and its charter suspended (by a vote of 122 to 73), the tariff had been cut across the country (by a vote of 130 to 68), and a comprehensive act defunding a number of canals, roads and schools in frontier territories and states was passed (by a vote of 110 to 81). Monroe had to grudgingly suspend the passage of his constitutional amendment until the next year, but when the Senate adjourned in October 1821, the Whig-Republicans were still feeling incredibly successful. The economic crisis had mostly subsided throughout the United States, and there was a feeling that the Kingdom was returning to a state of normality¹.

When the Senate reconvened in 1822, Prime Minister Monroe brought up the Elections Amendment of 1822. It explicitly gave the monarch the power to dissolve the parliament following a successful no-confidence resolution or at the request of the Prime Minister. The term of a Senate (before the monarch was forced to dissolve it) was also increased from four to five years. In the Senate, the amendment passed rather easily. The National Party was mostly for the resolution, and the Royalists, despite having been on the wrong end of such an action the year earlier, supported the expansion of the monarch’s power. While some older Whig-Republicans opposed the amendment, the majority saw that it was necessary. The amendment passed by a vote of 179 to 18. The amendment was then sent to the Royal Council, 23 to 1. Councilor Thomas Jefferson ² was the lone dissenter, calling the bill the first step on a slippery slope towards turning the monarch into a tyrant.

As the year 1823 began, 10 of the required 19 states had ratified the amendment. The Whig-Republican government ratified the O’Bannon-Otis Treaty (the renamed and renegotiated Calhoun-Onis Treaty of 1819) in the summer of that year, which would cede East and West Florida to the United States. Monroe had publicly stated that he was against further expansion of the United States, as it had lead to financial ruin only years before, but he made sure to finish the negotiations the previous government had started. Monroe’s government also officially recognized Agustín de Iturbide’s government in Mexico in early 1823. Iturbide, after being rebuked by European powers, had asked the Americans to install a member of the House of Washington in Mexico, but Monroe flat out refused. Unfortunately, before word could reach Iturbide that the United States had recognized his government, it was overthrown in March of 1823.

As the year of 1824 began, Monroe’s amendment was nearing ratification. In June, with the vote of Ontario’s legislature, the 12th Amendment was finally ratified. In 1824, talk throughout the capital focused not on the new amendment, but of rumors that Princess Maria, George II’s 17-year-old daughter, was engaged in a tryst with freshman Senator Sam Houston (WR-TN). Meanwhile, George II had been engaged with Ellen Wayles Randolph, granddaughter of Thomas Jefferson, since 1822. In 1824, he proposed marriage to Ms. Randolph, and King George II and Queen Consort Eleanora married on July 4th, 1824 at the royal palace, Arlington Palace.


Queen Consort Eleanora

With a successful term behind him, James Monroe requested George II dissolve the Senate in time for elections in January 1825. Monroe was able to increase his majorities, especially in the South. Andrew Jackson, popular former governor and Senator of Tennessee, was credited with campaigning for weeks on end for his party in the state, allowing them to take a majority of seats in the Tennessee delegation. The Royalist party continued to decline, and the few surviving Royalists privately admitted after the election that the party was by that point no more than a collection of extra votes for Henry Clay’s party.

The Senate before the Election:
 Whig-Republican: 112 seats
National Party: 63 seats
Royalist: 24 seats
Total: 199 Seats


State delegations after the election of 1825

The Election of 1825:
Whig-Republican: 135 seats (+23)
National Party: 71 seats (+8)
Royalist: 17 seats (-7)
Total: 223 Seats <sup>3

1</sup>Economists disagreed (and still do to this day) over what exactly ended the Crisis of 1820. Some would argue that Monroe’s policies contributed, while others would argue that the crisis was just a natural market fluctuation. Still others argue that if Clay’s plans had to come to fruition (increasing the tariff, further investing in the economy and infrastructure) the crisis would have ended a full year earlier.
²George II had taken to appointing elder statesmen retired from politics to the Royal Council, as a tribute to their years of public service. Notable figures in this “upper house” in 1822 included Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and DeWitt Clinton.
³The Senate had grown to 223 seats after redistricting in 1821 following the 1820 census.